Definition: the desire to acquire colonies. (esp. 1870-1914)

After low point in the beginning of the 19^th century, there was a revival in Imperialism (New Imperialism) as European powers fought over Asia and Africa.

In 1875 only 10% of Africa was under European control.

In 1895 90% of Africa was under European control.

The leading imperial powers were Britain, France, Russia, and Germany.

Economic:

• "the impulse was always one of capitalistic greed for cheap raw materials, advantageous markets, good investments, and fresh fields of exploitation" (marxist explanation)
• Argument against this: "the export of capital in fact seems to have little connection with imperial expansion" (ie: in 1913 Britain had more money invested in the US than in any colony)

• Post-Franco-Prussian war (1870-71) the risk of war in Europe was too great therefore rivalries were transferred to Asia and Africa.
• The French sought to compensate loss of prestige from the war with Prussia by gaining success overseas.

• ie: Britain sought control over Egypt to secure the route to its Indies colonies (the result of this was that other imperial powers annexed regions to compensate for the strategic annexations and imperialism gained its own momentum)

• Loss in the race for colonies was seen as loss of national prestige.

• Nationalistic masses through the democratic system backed and asked for imperialist policies. (the colonies provided for excitement of the masses — like bread and circuses in Roman times)

• Some felt they had a duty as ‘more advanced people’ to help the less advanced.

• Applied Darwin’s theories on evolution onto international relations. (states must expand or decline, they must increase their empires or be taken over by others.)

• the exploits of explorers aroused great interest

• Technological advances meant that huge amounts of territories could be conquered with relative ease. (once occupied they were easier to administer due to the use of tech. Such as the telegraph and telephone.)

By 1905, the enthusiasm for imperialism died out because of setbacks. (Spain was defeated by the US, the Boer wars, the battle of Adowa (where the Italian army lost out to Abyssinian troops), and defeat of the Russians at the hands of the Japanese.)

- The Scramble for Africa.

• Europeans settled in colonies like Algeria (the French) and South Africa (the English)
• Britain acquired Cyprus
• France proclaimed a protectorate over Tunis in 1881.
• Britain occupied Egypt in the summer of 1882. (but it represented a ‘noose round England’s neck’ rather then a benefit)
• In 1907 the Congo became a Belgian colony
• France founded the French Congo.
• Germany claimed South West Africa, Togoland and the Cameroons as well as western New Guinea and certain pacific islands.
• The Berlin conference (1884)
• There should be free trade for all nations in the Congo bassin.
• Britain’s predominant position in the Niger was recognized.
• Laid down doctrines of ‘effective occupation’ and proper notification of annexations. (speeded up the partitioning process in Africa)
• Conflict btw France and G.B. over W. Africa
• Conflict btw G.B. and Germany in E. Africa (Britain obtained Kenya and Uganda while Germany obtained Tanganyika)
• Conflict in S. Africa btw Britain, Germany, Portugal, and the Boer Republics.
• ‘Fashoda incident’ (Upper Nile) brought Britain and France on the verge of war- they then embarked towards an entente cordiale.
• The scramble for Africa ended in 1898.

- The ‘Scramble’ for China.

• Britain gained access to ports and the island of Hong Kong (as a result of the 1839 — 42 war)
• Russia gained territory at China’s expense to have access to warm water ports.
• The French conquered Indo-China during the 1880’s
• The first serious attack on the Chinese mainland was made by Japan.
• WWI and the founding of the League of Nations as well as rivalries between imperialist powers prevented the partitioning of China.

- The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire.

• By 1914 Germany was the dominant power at Constantinople.

The alignments of WWI had been ‘forged’ during the imperialist era but not determined by it. (ie: G.B. entered WWI on the side of her two old enemies: France and Russia)

Definition: Who will fill the vacuum created by the decline of Ottoman power and withdrawal from the region?

Russia: (most likely to profit from the decline of the O.E.)

• She shared a border with O.E. / had military advantage over O.E.
• Russia sought access to the Mediterranean.
• The peoples of the Balkans were mainly Orthodox (like the Russians) which gave Russia a valid claim to influence in the Balkans
• The pan-Slav movement to free the Balkans from Ottoman control was picked up by Russia.

• Was concerned about the spread of nationalism in the Balkans because of its own multinational identity.
• Sought to maintain her access to the Adriatic Sea (through Croatia)
• Was determined, as a question of prestige, not to lose out in the Balkans.

• Supported the maintaining of the Ottoman Empire, in order to prevent further Russian influence in the Balkans.

• Under Bismark, Germany had no direct interest in the Balkans because Bismarck sought to avoid conflict between the great powers.

• The Balkan Revolt (1875)
• A revolt against Ottoman rule (in Bosnia and Herzegovina which spread to other part of the O.E.)
• Russia ‘bought’ A.-H. neutrality with the promise that A.H. would receive Bosnia and Herzegovina and that no large Slav state would be set up. As a result Russia intervened and defeated the Turks.
• The Turks had to accept the Treaty of San Stefano (1878) by which Bulgarian became independent (with Russian occupation for two years) and Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania gained independence. (there was no mention of Bosnia/Herzegovina.)
• The Congress of Berlin (1878) — which modified the Treaty of San Stefano
• Bulgaria reduced in size
• A.H. to occupy Bosnia/Herzegovina
• Russia kept southern Bessarabia, Kars, and Batum
• Britain gained Cyprus
• Britain guaranteed Turkey’s Asiatic frontiers / declared her right to send a fleet through the straights. (moves against Russia)
• Results of the Congress:
• Diplomatic defeat for Russia (smaller Bulgaria / British right to enter the Black Sea / now her success against the Turks did not only benefit herself)
• Defeat for A.H. (failed to preserve the O.E. / the gain of Bosnia/Herzegovina was to sow the seeds of future disaster)
• Bismarck had prevented war between the major powers, but had sided against Russia and as a result Russia turned to France in search of a more reliable ally.
• The Nationalities of the Balkans were disappointed (this meant further conflict in the region)
• After the congress diplomatic relationships began to form rival alliances (which formed the basis for sides in WWI)

• The King of the Bulgarians (Prince Alexander of Battenburg) favoured the A.H. and angered Russia. Russia supported revolts against Prince Alexander but this caused Bulgarians to brake off diplomatic relations w/ Russia.
• G.B. and A.H. saw an independent Bulgaria as an guarantee against the spread of Russian influence.
• Russia turned her interest towards Central Asia and the Far East (w/ less conflict w/ the other Imperialist powers)
• In 1897 a Austro-Russian agreement maintained the status quo in the Middle East

• Reasons for further conflict in the Balkans after temporary stop in conflict from 1886 to about 1900
• Decline in Austro-Serbian relations (the new Serbian king favoured relations w/ Russia)
• Changes in A-H. policy (A.H. saw the elimination of Serbia as of great interest)
• Changes in German policy (after Bismark Germany began to adopt a more interventionist policy — Germany backed A.H. in their claims in the Balkans)
• 1904/05 Russia is defeated by Japan, and refocuses on Europe.
• Steps to the outbreak of the war:
• A.H. annexed Bosnia/Herzegovina (1908) — this added to nationality problems.
• The Balkans war broke out in 1912
• The Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Montenegro) attacked the Ottomans (October 1912) à collapse of the O.E.
• Results:
• Serbia regarded war with A.H. as inevitable
• Bulgaria nursed plans for revenge. (had lost Macedonia to Serbia and Greece. [1913])
• Russia again showed interest in the Balkans (sided w/ Serbia and Rumania against Bulgaria)
• A.H. was worried over Serbia’s gains.
• The reinsurance treaty btw Russia and Germany (whereby each would remain neutral in the event of a war in which the other was involved) was NOT renewed à led to a Franco-Russian alliance
• The assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand (June 28)
• Results:
• Austria issued an unacceptable ultimatum to Serbia (July 23)
• Backed by Russia Serbia ‘replied in an evasive way’ and Austria declared war on July 28.
• Russia mobilized on July 30
• July 31 — Germany demanded a halt to Russian mobilization but due to lack of response declared war on August 1^st
• Germany declared war on France on August 3^rd when France refused to guarantee French neutrality in the event of conflict btw Russia and Germany.
• Germany demanded free passage through Belgium, upon refusal attacked on August 4^th — this led to British declaration of war against Germany.

WWI ended the Eastern Question

• A.H. disappeared as a great power and Serbia became Yugoslavia.
• A.H. was broken up
• Czarist Russia collapsed (1917 revolution)
• The Ottoman empire dismembered and what was left became the basis for modern Turkey.

Russia was the most backward of the 19^th century major powers (had little industry, an autocratic gov. w/ no constitution and mainly an illiterate peasant pop.)

• Brought the Crimean War (against Franco-British forces) to an end.
• Instituted ‘Liberalization’ processes
• Edict of Emancipation (1861): peasants had no obligations to nobles / peasants were given 50% of the agric. land / the nobles were compensated through taxes for the loss of land / the commune (Mir) became a basis for tax collection & distribution of land
• The establishment of the Zemstvo, which was elected local councils with the resp. for collecting taxes, building projects, levying rates…
• Trial by jury (in public) was introduced / censorship lessened
• Town councils were established (1870)
• The army was reformed (conscription for all classes — 1870), service time was reduced, and training and education facilities were improved.
• The national budget became subject to audit and transparency / a state bank was established. (transparency was not extended to the national gov. and the Czar remained an autocrat)
• Social protest:
• The Populist (mainly students and intellectuals) / in 1866 a student attempted to assassinate the Czar à tighter control of education / reduction in # of poor at Univs. / increased censorship / power of Zemstvo reduced / increased activity of the Secret police / political trials were taken to military court.
• The Land and Liberty Party — rebellion from below (the peasants) led by the anarchist Michael Bakunin
• Evaluation of his reign:
• Serfdom was ended
• Reduction in the power of nobles
• Develop. of industry.
• Failure to carry out political change à basis for revolution

• Reaction (after father’s assassination in 1881)
• A return to ‘orthodoxy and autocracy’: censorship of the press / reduction in the power of the Zemstvo / Pogroms against Jews / increased secret police activities
• Massive increase in industrial output (foreign capital flowing in) / Russia built up huge gold reserves.

• Easily influenced by those around him
• Convinced of the suitability of autocracy in Russia (therefore inflexible on political change)
• Accepted danger fatalistically (didn’t step to change things)
• Had little experience of gov.
• His wife had immense influence upon him (ie: w/ Rasputin)
• Not as firm as Alexander III his father à increased opposition
• This led to the rise of several political movements
• The Liberal Movement : a middle class party
• The Social Revolutionary Party: (from Land and Liberty Party) prepared to use violence but rather utopian
• The Social Democratic Party: Mensheviks (believed in a mass movement of workers gradually progressing towards a socialist state) and Bolsheviks (believed in revolution by a party of elite leading the workers)
• The Revolution of 1905 (result of defeat against the Japanese in 1904-05 and Bloody Sunday)
• General strike called
• Czar’s uncle assassinated by Social Rev.
• Mutinies in the armed forces
• Setting up of a workers council (Soviet)
• Peasants seized the land of the nobles
• The effects:
• The October Manifesto which granted: Freedom of Speech / a Duma (parliament)
• The Czar made no move towards political change
• The army remained loyal / this was not to be in 1917
• The Duma only had limited power (couldn’t initiate constitutional change / could be suspended by the Czar)
• The Duma was not fully democratic
• The creation of the Duma split the opposition: Constitutional Democrats (wanted full constitutional gov.) vs. Octobrists (satisfied w/ the October Manifesto)

Perter Stolypin (1906-11) (Prime Minister)

• Abolished payments by peasants for their gain in land from the nobles
• Introduced low interest loans for peasants (so they could buy land)
• Tried to establish a middle class of peasants loyal to the Czar
• Firm against non-parliamentary opposition
• Assassinated in Sept. 1911

• Defeat of Russia following entry in WWI
• Some argue that Rev. was inevitable regardless of WWI (terrible living standards)
• Incompetence of the Czar
• Corrupt and inefficient Gov.
• Weak ruler (Nicholas II)
• Rasputin damage the reputation of the royal family in the eyes of other nobles (he was seen to be the de facto ruler of the country)
• Food shortages
• Army losses in 1916 (the army morale declined)
• The Czar assumed command of the army and was associated with military defeat
• Formation of the Provisional Gov.
• Established by the Duma
• A soviet committee was established
• Causes of the October (Bolshevik) Rev.
• Weaknesses/mistakes of Prov. Gov. : failed to decisively — didn’t satisfy demands for change / the power of the Soviets / allowed opposition to form / kept Russia in the war / handicapped by internal divisions (not efficient and united)
• The power of the Bolsheviks
• The return of Lenin
• The Mensheviks supported the Prov. Gov. and opposition sided with the Bolsheviks as a result
• Lenin adapted Marxist doctrine to fit revolutionary needs
• The simple message of Bolshevism: "Peace, bread and land"
• The Bolsheviks strengthened power in the cities as opposed to the countryside which meant success in elections.
• They gained a military force (the Red Guards) which other political parties did not have
• Benefited from divisions amongst their opponents
• The Bolshevik Revolution
• Timing was a result of Lenin’s belief that war with Germany must be ended at any costs.
• Were the 1917 Revolutions inevitable?
• Improvement in living standards meant chances of revolution might fade: the establishment of a middle peasant class / improvements in working conditions / lack of incentive in revolutionary parties
• BUT The Czar had failed to carry out his promised reforms (the situation was deteriorating before WWI)
• Stolypin’s reforms failed to match a growing peasant pop.
• Little relaxation of secret police activities
• The royal family was discredited
• Growing agitation amongst the workers / combined with the fact that the army was not loyal to the Czar following Russian defeat in war.

Lenin’s long term aims:

• Create a communist state w/ state control of industry & trade.
• Nationalization of land
• Ending of class barriers and the establishment of a republic of workers, peasants, and soldiers deputies with a gradual transition to socialism and the ‘withering away of the state’

He was willing to adapt these goals b/c:

• Inside Russia the Bolsheviks had only minority support
• Outside Russia revolution in advanced industrial states had not undergone revolution and the transition w/in Russia from revolution to socialism would therefore be hard and long.

The establishment of a single party rule:

• Lenin dissolved the Constituent Assembly (which did not have a Bolshevik majority).
• Dictatorial methods before this had included: suppression of newspapers, banning of the Cadet Party, setting up a secret police (Cheka).
• The communist aimed to "suppress all attempts of the bourgeoisie to return to power: and this is what is meant by the dictatorship of the proletariat."
• Lenin drew up a new constitution after dissolving the assembly.

Lenin’s Constitution:

• Drawn up in 1918 but only accepted w/ adjustments in 1922 & 1924.
• See notes for further info on basic rights, voting rights, etc.

The ending of the war:

Lenin wanted to obtain peace and signed in March 1918 the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk:

• Russia lost Poland, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, the Ukraine, part of Belorussia and Transcaucasia. (1,3 million sq. miles of territory, a pop. of 62 million people, 1/3 of all her railways, _ of her coal and iron resources.)

Advantages:

• Bolsheviks did not have to deal w/ discontented minorities.
• Bolsheviks could concentrate on control of Russia itself
• End of war meant Lenin could concentrate on internal difficulties.

The Civil War 1918-1921:

Opposition came from:

• Politicians in favor of revolution but not Bolshevism
• Former officers from the Czars army
• Nationalists seeking independence from Russia
• Foreign allies of Russia who were anti-Bolshevik (i.e.: Czechs, G.B., Japan, USA, France)

Reasons for the success of the Bolsheviks:

1. Were united and had clear aims
2. They held the ‘inner lines of communication’
3. The ‘Whites’ were politically divided (lack of co-operation)
4. The ‘Whites’ had little appeal to the mass of the population (no desire to return to Czarist rule)
5. White forces were often brutal (alienating themselves)
6. The bulk of the peasants were at least passive supporters of the Bolsheviks
7. The Allies began to loose interest in the Civil war (they no longer needed Russian help)
8. The Bolsheviks (fighting against the Allies) represented their fight as patriotic.
9. The Red Army proved a formidable fighting force.
10. The introduction of ‘war communism’ which allowed the freeing of necessary resources for the war effort.
11. Non-Russians w/in Russia had little reason to support the Whites since the Bolsheviks had announced that they could seek independence.

War Communism:

• Private ownership of land was abolished
• Industry was nationalized
• Peasants forced to sell surplus grain to Bolsheviks at fixed prices.
• Workers were no longer paid (were only allotted ration cards)
• Forced labor was introduced in vital areas.

This gave Bolsheviks control but caused:

• Peasant unrest
• Widespread famine w/ falling production
• Decreased industrial output.

The Kronstadt revolt (when sailors rebelled against Bolsheviks and were crushed by the Red Army) led Lenin to realize action must be taken that would improve the situation and might in the short term move away from communism.

The New Economic Policy (NEP):

1. Farmers to contribute 10% of production to state and sell any surplus on open market for profit.
2. Small private businesses were allowed to operate.
3. State controlled industry operated under capitalist notions such as: the profit motive, the right to dismiss workers, the right to reduce wages.
4. Trade passed into private hands (created a new middle class)
5. Currency reform w/ reintroduction of gold backing and balanced budgets
6. Confiscated property returned and loans made available to those willing to develop timber, oil and other resources.

An Evaluation of the N.E.P.:

• Moved opposite to the goals of the communists but was necessary to avoid continuation of chaos and the possibility of counter-revolution
• Disagreement w/in the party concerning NEP was quenched by Lenin but it was to reappear after his death.
• The Agricultural part represented a compromise between Lenin and a now majority of ‘middle class’ peasants
• The return of capitalist managers was criticized but Lenin realized they were the only ones w/ the necessary expertise
• Lenin retained control of the ‘commanding heights’ of the economy, although many enterprises went back into private hands.
• Lenin grouped state-controlled industries together assuming it would then be easier to more from this to socialism.
• Food production increased.
• Industrial production increased.
• A massive electricity program was started.

Lenin also brought education under state control, introduced social security schemes, attacked the Church’s position, purged opposing factions of the Party, and replaced the Cheka by the G.P.U. which had greater powers.

• He was the link between the Party leadership and the administrative levels below (which carried out Politburo decisions)
• And used this positions to ensure the appointment of loyal supporters
• His opponents underestimated him.
• He removed his opponents one at a time w/ others and then attacked those who had been his allies.
• He was popular because he came from the peasant class.
• He represented the view ‘Socialism in one country’ as opposed to ‘continuous revolution’ and this had a greater appeal.
• Stalin was totally unscrupulous, whereas Trotsky was loyal to certain ideals which he would not betray
• Trotsky was considered ambitious and arrogant.

Stalin’s view:

" Do you want our Socialist fatherland to be beaten and to lose its independence? If you do not want this you must put an end to this backwardness as speedily as possible and develop genuine Bolshevik speed in building up the Socialist system of economy. There are no other ways……We are fifty to a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this lag in ten years. Either we do it or they crush us."

The condition of agriculture in 1924:

• 80% of pop. in agricultural sector
• Vast majority lived in primitive conditions w/ widespread poverty
• Farming methods were not up to date
• The more productive peasants still used backward methods

Problems as a result of these:

• Peasants were conservative and Stalin saw them as holding back progress
• Industrial development could not occur w/out sufficient food prod.
• The peasant labor force was to be redirected to industrial labor, and this was impossible w/out more efficient farming
• Peasants would not allow surplus to pay for imports

Stalin’s answer was to collectivize farming (this was carried out by force) and peasants rebelled against this, and destroyed crops and animals.

The results of collectivization:

• In a very short time the bulk of the peasants were organized on collective farms
• The Gov. gained greater control over production and allocation.
• Modernization and use of machinery became possible
• Food was made available for the Five Year plans (industrialization)
• Supplies of food were ensured (even during the German invasion) and this gave the Soviets an advantage.

However:

• The immediate effect was a massive drop in production (w/ the destruction of crops and animals)
• Collectivization had an enormous human cost (as opposition was eliminated / and as a result of starvation)
• The kulaks (the most able farmers) were virtually destroyed
• It proved inefficient in the long run b/c not responsive to changes in local/regional needs
• The peasantry were heavily taxed

Stalin introduced a system of central planning w/ production determined by the Gov. and resources allocated accordingly. Each Sector of the economy was given a five year target. This was believed to eliminate waste and concentrate upon vital areas of the economy.

The first five year plan 1928-1933 (aimed to create an industrial base for further development)

• Aimed to achieve rapid expansion of coal and steel production / electrical power / transport and other ‘capital goods industries’.
• It called for 20% per annum increase, however this was not realistic / the peasants had little skill / central planning involved a vast army of then inexperienced bureaucrats.

It met w/ some success b/c:

• There was enthusiasm on the part of the work force (probably as a result of propaganda)
• Most of the required labor force was unskilled labor (which was in large supply)
• Of the complete control of the Gov. and of its allocation of resources to progress in designed areas.

Standards of living decreased as a result, but a solid industrial base was developed.

The second five year plan 1933-1938: (diversification)

• The aim was more realistic: 14% increase in prod.
• The planners had gainned more experience
• The workforce was more experienced
• Gov. control over labor increased
• Growth in certain areas was excellent (i.e.: engineering and metal working sectors)

However:

• Growth in sectors such as the consumer goods was less successful.
• Real wages did not increase
• As Hitler came to power, more and more resources were aimed at weapon production.

The third five year plan 1938-1943:

This plan was obstructed by the need to speed up armament and the 1941 German invasion.

• The goal for growth was 12%
• There were labor shortages
• New plants were built in the East
• Stalin’s purges led to disorganisation

1. Succeeded in turning the USSR into a major industrial power over a short period of time
2. In the early years there were many errors and much waste.
3. They allowed the USSR to resist the 1941 German invasion.
4. The methods used were harsh (i.e.: abolition of U. relief) although in addition to a high degree of Gov. control, there were incentives.
5. Living standards declined at first and then improved slowly.
6. A new elite was created
7. It became increasingly cumbersome as the Soviet industry’s extent and complexity increased, by 1945 there was need for reform.

The effects of the purges:

• Opposition to Stalin was removed, and this enabled him to act as a dictator until his death
• The ‘cult of personality’ around Stalin grew
• Many of the most able people of Soviet society were eliminated
• The purges had eliminated most experienced officers in the Soviet army (this encouraged Hitler’s 1941 attack)
• Millions of innocents were executed or imprisoned, denouncing of others became common.
• Initiative was thought to be dangerous and several areas of Soviet life stagnated.

Conclusion:

Abstractly Stalin was successful (the army grew in power, industry grew, etc.) but the costs imposed on the population for these improvements was enormous (purges, massacres, etc.)

Dominated by two features:

1. Hostility towards the capitalist world (b/c of Marxist ideology and foreign intervention on the side of the Whites during the Civil War)
2. Expansionist nationalism

The Bolsheviks revised their foreign policy when it became clear that the rest of the capitalist world would not undergo revolution. The features of this revised policy were:

• Belief that in the long run world revolution was inevitable
• Help to those struggling against western imperialism.
• Exploiting the rivalries between the capitalist states
• The use of Comintern to encourage labor unrest, etc.

Foreign Policy to 1933/34:

1. The Comintern was used to encourage unrest in the capitalist states at the same time as establishing normal diplomatic relations.
2. The attitude towards the League of Nations was one of constant hostility
3. Germany became of great concern b/c:

• It had great revolutionary potential
• It was a ‘revisionist’ power unhappy at the Versailles settlement
• Both the USSR and Germany were ‘outcast’ powers.

In April 1922 the USSR and Germany signed the Treaty of Rapallo which provided for: the establishment of full diplomatic relations between them / renouncing of any claims against each other / development of trade / the possibility of Germany’s army using Soviet territory as a training and weapons testing ground. The agreement was renewed for 5 years in 1926.

The Locarno Treaties (1925) these represented failure for the Soviets b/c Germany improved her relationship w/ her WWI enemies w/ this treaty.

1. The Far East was of second main interest:

• It was an area ‘ripe for revolution’ — especially China and the colonial possessions of France and G.B.
• Vital concern for security due to the sharing of a large frontier w/ the USSR and the fact that Soviet strength was concentrated in the West

The Soviets gave aid to the nationalist Sun-Yat-Sen, stopped aid when Chiang Kai-Shek came to power. Soviets were concerned at Japanese invasion of Manchuria.

The reactions to Japanese militarism in the area included:

1. Strengthening of the army in Eastern USSR
2. Avoiding provocative action against the Japanese (did not criticize Japanese policy / offered a non-aggression pact / sold railway interests in Manchuria to Japan)
3. Restoring of diplomatic relationships w/ China in 1932
4. Encouraging Chinese communists to cooperate w/ nationalists against the Japanese.

The relations between the USSR and other capitalist powers stayed at the USSR’s policy of using the Comintern to "maintain relations but subvert". The USA however, refused to recognized the Soviet Gov. until Roosevelt 1933.

Foreign Policy after 1933/34:

A change was evident and was brought about by:

• The rise to power of Hitler
• The total control Stalin came to have over policy, which then came to be based on ‘cold blooded realism’.

As a result:

• The USSR joined the League of Nations in 1934 to adopt ‘collective security’
• Diplomatic relations w/ the USA were established and a treaty of mutual assistance signed w/ France.
• The Soviets urged communist parties to cooperate with other left wing groups against Fascism.

Soon Stalin became disillusioned b/c:

• G.B. and France clearly saw communism as a threat greater then Fascism
• Collective security failed (b/c of lack of support)
• His proposals of military cooperation against Germany failed.
• Of the appeasement policies followed by France and G.B.
• Of the exclusion of the USSR at the Munich conference.

As a result Stalin sought a compromise w/ Hitler and this led to the Germano-Soviet Pact of August 1929. Stalin accepted the pact b/c:

• Of suspicion of G.B. and France b/c of their lack of support against Germany
• He wanted to give time for the Red Army to recover.
• He could obtain from Hitler parts of Poland and Baltic States.
• He would push away the Soviet frontier from main Russian cities.

Did Stalin miscalculate when he accepted the 1939 Pact?

1. The agreement over Poland brought Soviet gains but it also placed the Germany army in a better position to attack the USSR
2. The USSR was able to continue its armaments programme and begin recovery. Thus Stalin might have ‘bought’ time. But was there immediate danger of an attack on the USSR in August 1939 which the Pact avoided? If not, then he didn’t buy time.
3. It is argued that ‘Stalin gave the green light to aggression’ since he removed fear for Germany of having to fight a two front war. Maybe Stalin hoped to weaken both Germany and the Western Allies. But then Stalin’s miscalculation lays in "believing that such a war would be a long drawn out affair rather than a ‘blitzkrieg’ victory for Germany."
4. Did Stalin make the mistake of trusting Hitler? Considering his own nature, probably not. But then, why did he continue to supply Hitler with needed supplies right up until the day of the Barbarossa attack?