Characteristics: (during inter-war period)

• Strongly nationalistic
• Strongly/Violently anti-Communist
• Anti-Liberal-democratic
• Opposed to international org.
• Elitist and Authoritarian (‘Obedience not discussion’ — Mussolini)
• Close identity btw the party and the state
• Strongly anti-Semitic
• Glorified war (promoted Social Darwinism)
• Profoundly racist
• Had a paramilitary wing (ie: Blackshirts / S.A.)
• Promoted the myth of the race (use victories of the past)
• Placed emphasis on the myth of the predestined leader
• Made great use of symbolism (ie: swastika)
• Did not have a clear doctrinal base

• Fascism was not clearly developed in theory and could appeal to all groups irrespective of status
• The emphasis upon law and order was appealing (it was seen as an alternative to social unrest)
• People were turning to other forms of Gov. due to immense economic problems.
• Weak governments were easy preys for the fascists
• The fear of communism led to support for the fascists who were violently anti-Communist
• Fascism gave its members a sense of identity
• Fascism made great use of the potentials of the newly developed mass media
• Traditional parties lacked inspiration and the fascists:
• Represented a dynamic alternative
• Were not opposed by the Gov. which they sought to bring down

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• In its early days, the program of the party had strong socialist elements: progressive tax on capital / 85% tax on war profits / universal suffrage (including women) / formation of a national militia / a minimum wage / nationalization of the munitions industry / worker participation in management / confiscation of church prop. (all those in Italics were to disappear later)
• Until 1920 the Fascists had little success

Reasons for the rise of the Fascists (1920-22)

• Disgust in Italy at the terms of the peace treaties (didn’t obtain A.H. territory)
• The Fascists represented a means to stop the socialists and the communists (in the eyes of conservative politicians, who sought to moderate and control Fascism to their purposes)
• Mussolini was backed by wealthy industrialists and landowners (b/c of their fear of socialist reforms)
• Support from Pope Pius XI and the Vatican (who saw the Fascists as an opportunity to normalize State-Church relationships)
• Lack of faith in Italy’s institutions (failures of WWI, post-war violence, high U…)
• After the March on Rome (October 22) the King offered the post of Prime Minister to Mussolini
• The violence of the Fascists (i.e.: blackshirts) intimidated opponents
• The complicity of the police and the army (who didn’t suppress Fascist violence)

The king remained the Head of State, but w/ Mussolini Italy moved gradually towards dictatorship (not to the extent of Hitler’s dictatorship however)

1922-1924: The Fascists strengthened their position by:

• Excluding Socialists from the coalition
• Continuing to attract members (weakening opponents at the same time)
• Continuing violence a/g political opponents
• The fact that the Vatican became increasingly pro-Fascist
• The lack of unity amongst opponents
• The Acerbo Law (July 1923) which stated that the party of coalition which won an election was to be automatically awarded 2/3 of the seats in parliament (this made strong Gov. possible)
• Winning the April 1924 election w/ 374 out of 535 seats in parliament
• Use of electoral fraud in the south of Italy (to ensure Fascist victory)

June 1924: the Matteotti murder, the murder of a critic of the Fascists (the socialist Giacomo Matteotti) created an anti-Fascist backlash à extreme elements of the Fascist party demanded that Mussolini move towards dictatorship.

• December 25: a law passed complete power in Mussolini’s hands and introduced several repressive measures:
• Political parties were banned
• Trade unions were banned
• Free press was ended (through takeover by Fascists or censorship)
• Elected local officials were replaced by officials appointed by the central Gov.
• Increased power of arrest and detention w/out trial
• Scope of death penalty widened (to include action against the authorities)
• Setting up a special court to deal w/ ‘political crimes’
• Creation of a secret police force (OVRA)
• These strengthened Mussolini and the State rather then the Fascists.

• The Fascists compromised w/ non-Fascist interest groups (i.e.: the Church, the Monarchy)
• Mussolini could be dismissed by the King
• The Church still had considerable influence (unlike in Germany under Hitler) in sectors such as education.
• Fascism had little influence in the South, and despite Fascist propaganda the South remained under Church and powerful landowner’s influences.

• Italians had to conform to Fascist expectations (this was enforced by the secret police and the militia)
• Public employees had to swear an oath of loyalty to the regime
• Youth movements had considerable influence
• A ‘Mussolini Cult’ developed.
• In 1938 racial laws were enacted (mainly directed against the Jews) — there was little persecution until wartime at the urging of Hitler

This was a feature of the Fascist state in Italy…Under corporativism, a group composed of representatives of the employers, the workers, and the state would govern a corporation. This would supposedly:

• End conflicts btw owners and labor and therefore:
• Ending class conflict
• Increasing production (no more strikes)
• Increase living standards

• No attempt to destroy capitalism (Mussolini compromised with the capitalist and left them in charge of their industries in return for their support)
• ‘Productivism’ was the word used by the Fascist to describe their aims — however this was vague and limited to a desire to boost production…
• There were close bonds btw State and heavy industry (funds were directed towards this area of the economy)
• There was little attention paid to development of the consumer industries.
• Taxation levels were high (to fund investment in heavy industry)
• The lira was fixed at an artificially high level (b/c of national pride)
• Protectionism increased — to protect heavy industry and agriculture — since Mussolini sought to achieve autarky.
• Government intervention increase (partly b/c of the Great Depression) and
• Private banks were taken over to finance for investment
• Allocation of raw materials was brought under Gov. control
• Direct control of major industries increased (see notes for figures)

• There is disagreement as to whether foreign policy was driven by fascist ideals
• There is consensus that it was dominated by Mussolini
• Evidence suggests it came to be dominated by fascist notions after the mid-1930s

Italy’s interests concentrated in three areas: the Mediterranean, Africa, and the Balkans; yet there was a desire to ‘revise’ the settlement of 1919-1920.

• Mussolini obtained Fiume from Yugoslavia
• Mussolini invaded Corfu (Greek island) in respons to the murder of an Italian general but was pressured (mainly by G.B.) into withdrawing.
• Mussolini declared in 1926 a protectorate over Albania
• Mussolini sought to destabilize Yugoslavia; he signed a treaty w/ Hungary (also a right wing regime)
• He crushed a revolt in Libya w/ use of massive force & executions
• He signed a treat of friendship w/ Ethiopia in 1928

By the late 1920s, Mussolini was becoming increasingly revisionist & frustrated at the failures of traditional diplomacy, but the weakness of the Italian armed forces made him support the disarmament efforts of the League of Nations and made him cooperate w/ Italy’s WWI allies.

• Relations w/ Germany were not good in the early years of Hitler’s regime, Mussolini opposed Hitler’s designs on Austria by backing the Austria Gov. and an Austrian right wing force. Later he moved troops to the Austrian frontier to forestall what he suspected were German interventions in Austria
• October 25: Mussolini ordered the invasion of Ethiopia (realizing that the Allies would to little to stop him b/c they were worried over Hitler’s Germany) The League of Nations imposed sanctions for this actions but they did not succeed b/c:
• Oil was not included in the banned items
• Britain did not close the Suez Canal to Italian warships
• Neither Germany nor the USA were members of the League and sanctions could therefore only be ineffective.

Now, Mussolini turned towards a more Fascist-driven foreign policy. The reasons for this change were: anger at the actions of Britain and France (in response to his Ethiopian invasion) / the success of the Ethiopian invasion and the lack of success of traditional diplomacy / the nature of Fascism which demanded expansionist policies.

• Intervention in the Spanish Civil War
• A move towards Hitler:
• The establishment of the axis in 1936
• The visit of Sept. 1937 of Germany by Mussolini
• Mussolini let Hitler annex Austria (Feb. — March 1938)
• Mussolini proposed the Munich conference when war btw Germany and the Western Allies seemed likely
• Mussolini annexed Albania (an Italian protectorate since 1926) when Hitler seized the whole of Czechoslovakia.
• In May 1939 a military alliance w/ Germany was signed (the Pact of Steel)
• Italy was unable to support Hitler in Sept. 1939 and Hitler accepted Italian neutrality
• In 1940, Mussolini (convinced of Hitler’s success) joined the war but
• His invasion of Southern France did not fit Hitler’s plans
• His invasion of Greece obliged Hitler to intervene
• Initial success in N. Africa was then met by British counter-attacks
• In June 1941, Mussolini participated in the invasion of the USSR and in Dec. 1941, the followed Hitler in his declaration of war on the USA.
• In July 1943, Allied troops landed in Sicily, the Fascist Grand Council denounced Mussolini’s actions, and the King dismissed Mussolini à Mussolini was then arrested.

• Since 1936 his popularity had been in decline (i.e.: w/ involvement in the Spanish Civil War)
• His relationship w/ Germany was seen as sacrificing Italy’s interests to those of Germany.
• Loss of the King’s support
• Defeats in WWII undermined his prestige
• Conditions w/in Italy deteriorated w/ the war.
• Corruption w/in the Fascist party
• Mussolini’s illness
• The invasion of Sicily by the allies (clear sign of Italy’s defeat)

Italy surrendered on Sept. 8^th 1943, Mussolini was rescued by the Germans and set up at the head of a German backed Rep. of Salo, and fought against Italy. He was then executed on April 28^th 1945 at the hands of pro-Allied Italians.

• Failure in that it meant Italian involvement in WWII on Germany’s side, loss of colonies, and Allied occupation.
• The desire for empire was more of a burden than an advantage. (i.e.: Ethiopia did not bring Italy any economic benefits)
• The relationship w/ Germany meant that Italian interest were of secondary importance, and post-1943 that Germany invaded Northern Italy, used Italian workers as forced labor…
• Fascism caused economic stagnation in Italy. A high lira damaged exports, wages fell, and there was massive U. (partly b/c of the Great Depression)
• Fascism brought little social reforms and sided w/ the employers against the employees.
• The reality of the Corporate State was that Fascists sided w/ employers and this system did little to represent the interests of the workers. This system was effectively only a disguise for exploitation of labor.
• Fascist rule was corrupt, and much needed reforms were not carried out.
• Propaganda was used to claim successes, but remained propaganda.
• Successes included improvements in public transport, success in the campaign against the Mafia…
• The one major success was the ending of the conflict btw State and Church. (the establishment of the Vatican as an independent state)

• The economic collapse of Germany after 1929 (main reason)
• The lack of democratic roots in Germany
• Under the Weimar republic
• It was impossible to secure a majority in parliament (this depicted democracy as a weak Gov. system)
• The president had the authority to declare a state of emergency (Hitler used Hindenburg’s ability to do this in order to establish his dictatorship)
• The fear of communism (Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor as a result of such fears)
• The Nazis exploited the weakness of the Weimar system and often used violence against their opponents
• The Nazis made use of propaganda to shape public opinion
• The Nazis used resentment against the Versaille Settlement to their ends.
• Some other political parties did not support democracy and represented potential allies for Hitler

• Germany became a one party state
• Hitler was supreme within the party and he was taken as the personification of National Socialism.
• Totalitarianism was introduced
• Education was controlled
• Strict censorship of the media
• All non-Nazi youth movements were banned and replaced (ie: by movements such as Hitler Youth)
• The churches were brought under Nazi control
• Trade Unions & strikes were banned
• The use of terror was made to crush all resistance
• The army was brought under Nazi control
• Officers swore loyalty to Hitler
• Gradually Nazi officers filled army ranks
• The non-Nazi commander and war minister were removed in scandals at least engineered by the Nazis
• The S.S. was built up
• The Nazis made great use of propaganda
• The economy (see notes on inter-war period)
• Racism / The Aryan Germans were declared to be the ‘Master Race’
• Expansionism / Hitler claimed to reunite all Germans and Nazi interests centered on obtaining land in Europe
• There was a close identity btw party and state
• Centralization of power.

• Failed in the long run and brought disaster to Germany
• Brought short term benefits (see notes on Economic Problems)
• Drove to exile Germans who could have contributed greatly for Germany (ie: Einstein)
• There was strict censorship of art, literature and academic life; which all did not flourish under the Nazis
• Women’s rights suffered
• Loss of civil liberty
• Nazi extremism brought about Allied extremism and eventually events such as civilian bombings (ie: Dresden)
• Some successes: construction of autobahns, establishment of enterprises like Volkswagen, and scientific advances in areas such as synthetics, and rocketry.

The two sides were: The Nationalists (a loose coalition of right wing groups, including Army high command, the Church, the landowners, monarchists, a the Falange [fascist party]) and the Republicans ( looser coalition of left wing groups, including socialists, trade unionists, communists, anarchists, and moderate liberals)

The Nationalists sought to preserve Spain’s integrity, while Republicans wished to preserve the Second Republic.

• Profound cause: long period of decline since the great days of the Spanish Empire. Spain had made little progress, lost her empire, and fallen behind in the industrialization process
• Deep divisions in Spanish society:
• Landowners vs. Peasants.
• Church vs. Anti-Clerical movements: the Church had enormous power in Spain and was opposed to social reform, this led to groups that sought to reduce the Church’s influence.
• Conservatives vs. Liberals. There was a lack of a political middle, and extremists elements were increasingly popular.
• Massive divisions btw countryside and towns.
• The Spanish army had a tradition of interfering in politics.
• Long standing tradition of violence in Spanish politics, and democracy had never really been established (therefore parties tried to reverse election results through violence)
• ‘Democracy’ in Spain had brought about corrupts Gov. and undermined the concept of democracy. (there was electoral fraud and continuing landlord control under Spanish ‘democracy’ )
• There was a desire for autonomy in several regions of Spain. Conservatives saw this as a threat to Spain.
• Anarchism was a powerful force in Spain.

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  The weaknesses of the Gov. of the Second Rep. (1930-36), its failure to carry out reforms, and to act against those that were plotting against the Republic. It also failed to maintain law and order.
• Army concern at the possibility of a communist takeover.
• The assassination of the right wing leader Calvo Sotelo in July 1936.

• The conflict was extremely brutal
• There was widespread foreign intervention (b/c the conflict was seen as a struggle btw right and left), Nationalists received support from Germany and Italy, while Republicans obtained aid from USSR and occasionally from France, as well as foreign volunteers and the International Brigades.
• It has been characterized as an ideological war. The at first loose coalitions developed to be strongly idealistic as excesses polarized opinion. However the war was never clear-cut. And only the ideological divide btw foreign supporters was clear. (USSR vs. Germany and Italy)
• It was seen as a ‘curtain raiser’ for WWII
• First major use of air power.
• Bombing of civilian targets
• Formations of armored vehicles (to predict Hitler’s Blitzkrieg)
• The bulk of the troops (despite foreign technology) were not well equipped.
• It is claimed that it was a war btw professional soldiers and armed workers (although gradually order and discipline was instituted amongst the Republicans.)
• This war saw the use of propaganda to overcome resistance and terrify populations
• It brought profound social changes in it wake. (especially in Republican held areas)

• Tremendous loss of life (executions continued after the victory of the nationalists)
• Material losses were great (this was important since Spain had been backward before the war already) — i.e.: the Republicans sent all the gold reserves to the USSR for safekeeping.
• Franco’s regime marked the end of democracy for the next 40 years.
• Agriculture remained backward and the landowners in control
• The Church became more powerful (in return for support for Franco’s regime)
• Regionalism was suppressed, and the state highly centralized.
• Censorship was introduced
• No attempts at reconciliation, reconstruction.
• Cultural life suffered (b/c of authoritarianism of Franco)
• High degree of state control led to corruption.
• Franco’s foreign supporters wanted compensation. He had to provide Germany w/ resources.
• Spain became diplomatically isolated.

• Most of the army was on the nationalist side.
• The parts of the army that sided w/ the Republicans was regarded w/ suspicion and not used well.
• Franco assumed control of the Nationalist side and unified it.
• The Republicans were not unified (politically & militarily)
• Foreign aid was more substantial & direct to the Nationalists, and supplies from the USSR dried up when Stalin sought to reach an understanding w/ Hitler.
• Britain adopted a non-interventionist policy.

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The ideological roots of Nazism:

Its roots lay in two movements of the last 25 years of the 19^th century:

• Anti-Semitism which grew during that period of depression and from the racial theories of the time
• Radical right-wing politics (i.e.: Pan-German League) in favor of authoritarianism.

• Founded during the chaotic period immediately after WWI. Bavaria was then under the control of a right wing Gov. which sheltered extremists (including the Nazis)
• Formed Jan. 9^th 1919 under the name German Workers Party (DAP), Hitler joined as propaganda chief in Sept.
• Aug. 1921: Hitler became leader and introduced: the notion of the leader / a more centralized system w/ all branches subject to the authority of the original branch in Munich.
• June 1922: the now renamed National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) is banned in all states except Bavaria.

The Munich or ‘Beer Hall’ Putsch:

• End 1922: Germany defaulted on reparation payments
• Jan. 1923: Invasion of the Ruhr
• Aug. 1923: Streseman became chancellor (& called for passive resistance and began negotiating w/ the French) ß Hitler saw this chancellorship as the beg. of a communist takeover…he decided to lead a putsch.
• Hitler decided to convince leading members of the Bavarian Gov. to help him on his ‘March on Berlin’ he seized them, they gave their consent but once released w/drew their aid. On Nov. 9^th 1923 the Nazis marched on Gov. buildings and were dispersed by gunfire and had their leaders arrested.
• Hitler went for 5 years in prison, but now he was a nationally known figure.

The Creation of a Nationwide Party Organization (1923-1928)

• period of recovery / the Weimar Republic seemed to have survived attempts against it and have gained support
• 1924: the Ruhr was reintegrated into the German economy / the Dawes Plan (rescheduled payments and made loans)
• 1925: Locarno Treaties — Germany accepted the frontiers of 1919
• 1926: Germany joined the League of Nations
• 1928: Kellog-Briand Pact

Nazi Party Measures:

• Refounding of the Party, Feb. 1925: Hitler refounded the party (which had been banned) to participate in the political processes of the Weimar Republic. Hitler planned to use the democratic process to gain power, and then destroy it.
• Consolidation of the ‘Fuhrerprinzip’: Dispute (over participation in elections / the Party Programme) was ended when Hitler imposed his views, and by 1926 his control of the party had been greatly strengthened.
• Creation of a Party cadre: the country was divided into Party regions w/ a leader for each region.

The insecure foundations of economic prosperity:

• US short term loans were invested on long term projects
• Middle classes being ‘squeezed’ by gains made by: the leading industrialists who were forming into large thrusts / the workers, whose unions had pressured for higher wages, etc…
• World wide agricultural depression by late 1927

Gain for left wing parties, decline of the right. The right and center parties concluded that coalition Gov. had weakened them. There was danger that the parliamentary system would break down b/c coalition Gov. would not be possible.

• Had to face w/drawal of US short term loans
• The Young Commission and the Great Depression served as foci for right wing attacks against the Versailles settlement.
• March 1930: collapse of Gov. coalition / appointment of Bruning (Catholic Center Pary) He tries to force unpopular budget measures.
• Sep. 1930: Election in which Nazis become the second largest party in the Reichstag.

Propaganda:

• Modern techniques (press campaigns, whirlwind campaigns by air, film shows, etc.)
• Forming special propaganda sections for individual interest groups.
• Emphasis on appeal to youth.
• Nationalism as a uniting force.

• Reluctance of conservative right wing parties to ally w/ the Nazis. They wanted: Nazi officials only in minor cabinet posts / Nazis to drop many of their demands and restraining their followers.(becoming more ‘civilized’)
• Attitude of Pres. Hindenburg
• Divisions w/in the party. Hitler did not want to alienate the army & the wealthy industrialists. However, opposition w/in the party felt this would betray the revolutionary nature of the party (such feelings were strongest in the S.A.)

• See notes
• Jan. 1933: Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor b/c:
• Only way to have mass support for a right wing Gov.
• Instability during 1930-33 might turn to the advantage of the left
• He was persuaded the Nazis would become more moderate
• He was persuaded Hitler could be controlled (clear majority of non-Nazis in cabinet)
• Hitler accepted b/c:
• Loss of seat in Nov. 1932 election foreshadowed a decline of the Nazis
• He believed that once in power he could strengthen his position
• He hoped he could organize the next new elections so the Nazis would obtain an overall majority
• He had demanded the Enabling Act to give him special powers to deal w/ the crisis and thought this act would pass.

Situation in 1933:

• Only three cabinet posts held by Nazis / no Nazi Reichstag majority / Hitler could be dismissed by Hindenburg
• Hitler represented only hope of the Right for mass support / the Right could not simply govern through pressure groups (army, business, etc.) / Hindenburg becoming increasingly senile.

The Election of March 1933:

• Nazis received generous donations from industrialists (who feared a left wing revival)
• Goring (then Prussian Minister of the Interior) allowed Nazi violence in the campaign to go on uncontrolled.
• Opponents of the Nazis had a passive attitude.
• The Reichstag Fire: Feb. 27^th 1933 The man considered responsible was a communist à The Nazis claimed it was a beg. of a communist takeover / Hindenburg passed the ‘Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State’ à Hitler could: ignore restrictions on police power / take over the power of the German states à using this, the Nazis arrested communists and other political opponents.
• Results: Communists were banned, and Nazis in coalition w/ the Nationalists obtained a majority.

To obtain 2/3 majority needed to change the constitution the Nazis carried a campaign of intimidation: they depicted opposition as unpatriotic / Nazis in the S.A. seized control of state Gov. / opponents in the SPD and trade unions were arrested / the building where the Reichstag was surrounded by S.A. and SS troops. This law granted Hitler the right to:

• make laws w/out Reichstag approval
• make treaties w/ foreign states w/out Reichstag approval

Hitler now no longer needed the support of political parties.

Creation of a one-party state:

• June 1933: SPD banned
• July 1933: Law makes all political formations (except Nazis) illegal

Conflict between Hitler and the S.A.:

• The S.A. demanded that Hitler follow socialist measures as laid down in the 1920 Nazi Programme
• The S.A. wanted a greater say in party affairs
• They wished to replace the army w/ a national militia

Hitler feared that they would lose him the support of the non-Nazi right, and the army. The army was then the only group w/ the power to remove him.

The Night of the Long Knives:

Night of June 30^th/July 1^st: arrest of the main S.A. leaders by the S.S. / leaders are shot / Hitler congratulated by Reichstag, Hindenburg, & the army.

Death of Hindenburg:

Aug. 2^nd 1934: Hindenburg dies / Hitler replaces him w/out election à now referred to as the Fuhrer / new oath of loyalty for soldiers and civil servants (to Hitler)

• Professions are ‘synchronized’ w/ Nazi beliefs. (i.e.: teachers / judges)
• Purges of Gov. workers of communist sympathizers, Jews and replacement by party members.
• Nazis tried to restrict the influence of the Church and the application of the 1933 concordat (allowing the Catholic Church to have its own school & property but to keep out of politics) Nazis took more direct control over the Protestant churches…soon swastikas were displayed alongside the Christian Cross.
• Membership of one Nazi youth group was obligatory for all Germans until age 18.
• Toward workers: labor unions abolished, establishment of ‘Strength Through Joy’ movement which provided subsidised holidays, sporting activities, etc.
• Creation of Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda — bringing under control the mass media and using them towards Nazi propaganda.
• Rapid expansion of the S.S. (w/ Himmler) In 1934 the S.S. became an independent org. answerable to Hitler and Himmler only. Gestapo was placed under its control. Reg. Criminal police merged w/ the S.S. in 1936.