Situation before 1900
q Nominally, authority lies with Manchu emperor Guangxu in Beijing. In reality, authority lies with Empress Dowager Cixi.

o Cixi remained in power through:

§ Harsh repression
§ Collusion with “foreign devils”
§ Economic and Political Reforms

q 1898 Manchu Government launches 100 days reforms

o Aims are reform of

§ Civil service
§ Education
§ Industry
§ Civil Service
§ In order to buy off critics

o Reaction

§ A faction under Cixi takes control, appalled at reforms.
§ Guangxu forced to renege on reforms
§ Reformers executed, dismissed, or sacked.

The Boxer Risings 1898
q Causes:

§ Using nationalism of 100 days Cixi launches campaign against foreign devils
§ Resentment of foreigners
§ Loss of Chinese sovereignty over unequal treaties
§ Imposed by Japanese

§ Boxers were informal groups of anti-western secret societies, who had previously launched attacks against foreigners and missionaries.
§ Cixi launches an attack on foreigners with boxers.
§ Cannot draw regional armies from provinces. Some provincial governers even help foreigners. Thus loses.

§ Highlights inadequacy of government
§ Western armies attack Beijing and impose reparations.
§ Made it more difficult for the government to legislate

Position before 1911
Government
q 1908 Guangxu and Cixi dead within 24 hours of each other.
q Prince Chun regent. Continues with reforms. Very weak.

o To assert his authourity, Yuan Shikai (General of Bejing army) dismissed.
o Actions were intended as a sign of authourity, but were in actual fact a show of stupidity to followers and critics.
o Reforms did not go far enough and increased taxation.
o Railways nationalised

§ Causes

· Had acted as instrument of western domination
· Feared losing control

§ Nature

· Large foreign loans negotiated to pay for it

§ Effects

· Further debt
· Commercial interests against it

          Republican China 1911-1949

1911 Revolution
Nature

§ Military Mutiny in Wuhan. (Double tenth (10.10.1911)

o Troops ordered to suppress dissidents refused
o Spark needed
o Copycat risings.

§ 3 Provinces declare themselves independent
§ Rebels gather in Nanking to declare republic.

§ Manchus appealed to Yuan Shikai, who
o Appeared to reorganise and defend government
o Actually plotted overthrow
o Had a vendetta against Manchus
o Disliked Republicanism
o Aimed to replace Manchus with himself as Emperor

§ Yuan Shikai does deal with Republicans

o Allowed to take over as President of new Republic, in return for negotiating constitution and persuade Manchus to resign.
o 1912 Yuan agrees
o Presents himself to outside world as emperor in order to negotiate loans

§ Manchus resign
§ Constitution introduced, Revolution complete.
 

q GMD begins in Japan.
q Three principles:

§ Nationalism
§ Democracy (national freedom)
§ People’s Livelihoods

§ Struggle between Beijing (Yuan Shikai) and Nanking (GMD)

o GMD unable to fight back

§ Influence limited to southern China
§ Centre of government in north

§ 1915 Yuan Shikai crowned as emperor
§ Generals fearful of dictatorial methods flee
§ Admitting the obvious Yuan renounces title.
§ Dies three months later in 1916.

1916-1927 Warlord Era

§ Problems

o No real central government.

§ Beijing split into factions.

o Japan issues 21 demands

§ Intense nationalism results

o China dominated by warlords

§ Pre 1920, dominated by those that had ruled under republicans
§ Post 1920, shift to opportunists

§ 4th May Movement (date that treaty was announced in China)

o Series of demonstrations against foreign intervention
o Reaction to Paris Peace conference. Shandong taken from German and given to Japan. CCP (founded 1921) works with GMD (1912) in United Front, in order to drive out foreigners and warlords.

§ 1919 after Russian Revolution, and under Comintern influence, CCP formed. Decides to work together with CCP.
§ 1925 Japanese Shooting and Riots
§ 1925 March Sun Yatsen dead.

Growth of nationalism:

q Unequal treaties
q Concessions
q May 4th 1919
q May 30th

q United front

o Formed because

§ CCP interpreted “people’s livelihood” as meaning socialism
§ 1923 Came together
§ Incidents in 1925

· 30 May crowd marched in Shanghai in protest against earlier shooting of Chinese workers by Japanese
· British commander kills 12 demonstrators in attempt at suppression
· Strikes and riots followed

o Before incident Chiang Kai-Shek becomes nationalist leader, as Sun Yatsen had died
§ Bigger rift between CCP and GMD results

q Northern Expedition 1926-7 Wipes out War Lords
q White Terror April 1927

o With this achieved, Chiang turns on Communists
o Growth of trade union movement under Zhou Enlai in Shanghai

§ Had undermined warlord’s attempts to stop Chiang

o These People now crushed
o Mao flees to Jiangxi
o Death of 5,000 communists

§ Jiangxi Soviet 1928-34

o Mao’s position is strengthened

§ Mao advocated dissolution of United Front

· Official CCP line to accept Mao’s judgement at face value
· Many historians now view it as possibly being influenced by

§ Advocated rural rather than urban base
§ Personality

· Ferocious

o E.G: Futien incident 1930.

§ While attempting to crush rival red army faction that were supposed GMD / Li Lisan Supporters, 3,000 officers executed.

§ Long March 1934-5

o Causes

§ German military advise encirclement and starve policy – deny resources

· Use pill-boxes
· Manned road blocks

§ Supposedly to resist Japanese

o Nature

§ Encompassed

· 6,000 Miles (Equivalent to marching from London to Lagos)
· 15 Battles
· 24 Rivers

o Effects

§ Brotherhood, Suffering, Selflessness, Determination inculcated into Communist Party members.
§ Mao rises – exposes Urban communists as abandoning successful guerrilla tactics.
§ Zhang Guoato chooses westward route (as it is nearer Russia). Fails, and rejoins Mao. Mao strengthened.
§ CCP Survive

§ Xian Incident 1936

o Causes

§ GMD General Zhang persuaded by CCP to use his contacts to turn Chiang against Japanese
§ Massive discontent over GMD war policy

· Chiang – selling space to buy time.

o Nature

§ Chiang captured and made to fight against Japanese

o Effects

§ CCP true nationalists

· Forgoes party advantage (not assassinating him) for the sake of the country

§ Yanan 1936-45

o CCP detached from outside influence. Developed their own strategy.

§ Sinification of Marxism

· Revolution comes from the peasants

§ Red Army Instrument of propaganda.

· Code of conduct.

§ Tactics for seizing control of countryside

· Village seized / infiltrated
· Landowners driven out/shot
· Land reallocated to peasants

o No government official allowed any

o Party Membership grows

§ 1937 à 40,000
§ 1945 à 1,000,000

o 1942 S elf rectification campaign.

§ Unless party maintained constant against error revolution would be betrayed from within.
§ Party membership engaged in public self-criticism
§ Obliged to study texts

o Causes

o Began as militaristic Japan attempted to extend its influence from Manchuria into China

o Nature

o GMD Ally America post 1941

o Outcome

Civil War 1945-1949

o Reasons for CCP Victory

o Defeat of Japan different to way expected

§ Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
§ Had expected

· US Armies in China
· US Air-force In China

o These would have overwhelmed CCP and Japanese

§ CCP Resisted GMD claim’s to liberated areas

o Lack of GMD Popular Support Base

§ Outweighed American resources given to GMD

· 1945

o GMD 5 Million Troops
o CCP 1.25 Million Troops
o GMD American Resources

o Negative GMD Attributes

§ Corrupt
§ Not true nationalists
§ Despite hardware
§ Brutal food requisitioning
§ Detatchment from China’s real needs
§ Dependence on Foreign aid

o Positive CCP Attributes

§ High Morale
§ “When the enemy advances, we retreat. When the enemy escapes, we harass. When they retreat, we peruse. When they tire, we attack”.
§ Red army respect for peasantry

· Determined to win “the hearts of the people”
· Dedication
· Nationalism
· Mao

o Leadership
o Ruthfulness
o Strategy

o Failure to manage economy

§ Inflation

· 1937 Price Index=100
· 1948 Price Index= 287,700,000

o Course of Post WW2 Civil War

o Struggle for hearts and minds already over.
o 1947 GMD take Nanking
o GMD faced growing desertions.
o War weariness in GMD areas.
o 1948 Shanghai Scenes

§ Street-Corner Beheadings.

o Splits in GMD
o November 1948 Defeat in Mukden

§ Meant loss of China north of Bejing.

o December 1948 Defeat in Hsuchow

§ Railway Junction

          CCP Under Mao 1949-76
After the revolution

q Consolidation

o First Actions

§ Nationalisation

· Banks
· Public Utilites
· Assets of those that fled to Formosa
· Offered compensation to those willing to work with PRC

§ Administrative Structure

· Divided into Six Regions

o Led by 4 officials

§ Chairman
§ Party Secretary
§ Military Commander
§ Political Commisar

· Central Government

o Central People’s Government Council

§ 56 Leading Members
§ 6 Vice-Chairmen
§ 1 Chairman of Council

§ Reunification Campaigns

· Assert power over regions that might declare independence. . Armies dispatched.
· Areas

o North
o South

§ Xinjiang

o West

§ Tibet

q 1951 Three Anti-Movement

§ Attacks

§ Waste
§ Corruption
§ Inefficiency

q 1952 Five Anti-Movement

§ Attacks

§ Industrial Espionage
§ Tax Evasion
§ Bribery
§ Fraud
§ Theft of Government Property

§ Aims to destroy remnants of Bureaucratic Capitalist Class. Turned against those who had helped stabilised the CRP initially, but who now were expendable.

q Opposition

§ 1949 10 Political Parties

§ 1952 All Gone (including Left GMD, Democratic League)

§ Campaign against Counter-Revolutionaries and Imperialists

§ I.e. enemies of the state

§ Underworld Gangsters

§ 28,000 Killed in Shanghai
§ 80,000 in Guangzhou

§ Religion

§ Churches closed
§ Christianity, Bhuddism and Confuscianism denounced

§ Youth Organisations taken over
§ Propaganda

§ Wall Posters
§ Loud Speakers
§ Slogans Everywhere

Economy

q 1952-6

o First Five Year Plan

§ Aims

· State Directed Growth of Heavy Industry

§ Nature

· Establishment of NRC

o National Resource Committee
o Take advantage of doubling in urbanisation rate

· Took control of inflation

o 1949 = 1,000%
o 1951 = 15%
§ Achieved by

q Slashing Public Expenditure
q Raising Taxation
q Dollar ->  Renminbi

· Show Projects

o Road and Rail Bridge across Yangzi at Nanking

· Development of Industry

o Coal
o Steel
o Petro-Chemicals
o Automobile and Transport

§ Effects

· Massive growth in output across the board.
· Much financed by Russia (95% loans)

o Deterioration in relationship

1957 Hundred Flower’s Campaign

q Causes

o Mao felt that he was in touch after travelling widely in China
o “Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of though contend”.

q Nature

o Policies and individuals attacked

§ On grounds of lack of realism, corruption, inefficiency

o After initial hesitation, much criticism followed.
o Eventually stopped

q Effects

o Critics forced to retract
o Critics forced into reeducation
o Best minds lost

1958-62 Great Leap Forward

q Collectivisation

o Complement to industrialisation. Peasants had been encouraged to collectivise in 1949.
o Causes

§ Lack of labour
§ Increase in production

o Nature

§ Division of China

· China’s land divided into 70,000 commmunes.
· Each commune divided into 750,000 brigades
· Each brigade made up of 200 households.

§ Centralisation

· Methods, Sales and Prices dictated by CCP.

§ Presentation

· Presented as response to the peasant’s wishes

o Had the state become the ultimate landlord?

o Effects

§ Famine

· Greatest Ever
· No incentives
· Use of Lysenkoism

o Made official policy in 1958
o Universally enforced, even where unsuitable
o All Chinese made to kill sparrows

§ Make noise
§ Sparrows die
§ Pests population grows exponentially
§ Eats crops
§ Rats Multiply

· 20% Population of Tibet Wiped out
· Exports Increased

o Party officials reported that in fact production had increased, so exports followed suit.

§ Motivation

· Crassness?
· Enforce Control?

Industry

q Backyard furnaces

o Idea that mass labour could result in mass production
o Primitive inefficient, poor quality furnaces and inputs used.
o Good will did not produce steel.