An asterisk (*) indicates a hypothetical or reconstructed form. Forward slash (/) separates singular from plural forms. The more common anglicized forms of the Norse words are in parenthesis. An important disclaimer: I'm a complete amateur, and the hypothetical Old and Modern English forms are my work, and are not of any use in a serious setting like academia.
Proto-Germanic is the hypothetical language that is the common ancestor of all Germanic languages. Living Germanic languages are Afrikaans, Danish, Dutch, English (with significant borrowing from Romance languages), Faroese, Frisian, German, Icelandic, Norwegian, Scots, Swedish, and Yiddish (with significant borrowing from Aramaic). Extinct Germanic languages include Burgundian, Gothic, Gutnish, Lombardic, Norn, Vandalic, the early forms of the living languages (such as Old English and Middle Dutch), and the mother-tongues of the branches (such as Proto-East Germanic, the ancestor of Burgundian, Gothic, Vandalic, and possibly Lombardic).
Old Norse, which follows Proto-Norse, is the last common ancestor of the Nordic languages (Danish, Faroese, Gutnish, Icelandic, Norn, Norwegian, and Swedish). Norse mythology is the best-recorded of all the branches of Germanic mythology, being the last to be replaced by Christianity. As such, it is the most familiar form of German mythology to modern people.
Old English is the language spoken by the Anglo-Saxon tribes that conquered what is now England in the 400s, and is the basis for Modern English. Although not as well documented as Norse mythology, there is a fair amount of information about Anglo-Saxon mythology. Old English is also the most logical place to start when constructing hypothetical Modern English forms for words that didn't survive into Modern English. (Religious/mythological terms mostly fell out of use after Christianization, and kinship and legal terms mostly fell out of use after the Norman invasion, which forced the French legal system on the English.)
Abreviations
PGer = Proto-Germanic (c. 500—250 BC)
ON = Old Norse (c. AD 700—1300)
OE = Old English (c. AD 200—1100)
ME = Middle English (c. AD 1100—1500)
NE = Modern English (c. AD 1500—present)
| Proto-Germanic | Old Norse | Anglo-Saxon/Old English | Modern English | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *aidaz + *etunaz | eldjǫtunn/eldjǫtnar | *ǣleoten/ǣleotenas | *Ealettin/Ealettins | Fire Giants (OE ǣl "fire" only survives in "anneal" from "onǣlan") |
| *albaz | álfr/álfar | ælf/ælfas | elf/elves | nature spirits, originally ancestral spirits, possibly with meaning "shining/white" German folklore has the alp, an incubus-like night demon, and erlking (elf-king), a death spirit |
| *ansuz | Áss/Æsir | Ōs/Ēs | *Oose/Eese | primary pantheon, cultural and cosmological deities |
| *bergoz + *reisan | bergrisi/bergrisar | *beorgrisere/beorgriseres | *Barrowriser/Barrowrisers | Mountain Giants |
| *derk + *albaz | dökkálfr/dökkálfar | *deorcælf/deorcælfas | *Darkelf/Darkelves | Dark Elves, (sometimes) black-skinned, ancestral smith spirits possibly synonymous with "dwarf" |
| *dwergaz | dvergr/dvergar | dƿeorg/dƿeorgas | Dwarf/Dwarfs | dwarfs (subterranean smith spirits) Northumberland folklore includes duergar, possibly borrowed from late Norse dvergar |
| *etunaz | jǫtunn/jǫtnar | eoten/eotenas | ettin/ettins | giants, possibly with meaning "man-eater" Only surviving case in NE is the three-headed antagonist and titular character in the English folktale The Red Ettin Tolkien's "ent" is from an alternate OE form |
| *guda | guð | god/godas | god/gods | generic term for deities |
| *hrím + *þurisaz | hrímþurs/hrímþursar | *hrīmþyrs/hrīmþyrsas | *Rimethurse/Rimethurses | Frost Giants |
| *kubon + *guda | cofgod/cofgodas | *Covegod/Covegods | house spirits (OE "cofa", which meant "chamber" > NE "cove", a protected inlet) Possible origin of the hob of English folklore Other house spirits include German Kobold, Galgenmänn, Heinzelmänn, Klabautermann (actually a ship spirit), and Kofewalt |
|
| *landom + *wextiz | landvættr/landvættir | *landƿiht/landƿihtas | *Landwight/Landwights | chthonic spirit |
| *liŋxto + *albaz | ljósálfr/ljósálfar | *leohtælf/*leohtælfas | Lightelf/Lightelves | Light Elves, sun spirits |
| *nikwuz | nykr/nykar | nicor/nicoras | Neck/Necks | water spirits Sussex knucker, a water dragon, also derives from nicor Other cognates include German Nix/Nixe, Swedish näck Norwegian nykk, Danish nøk, Icelandic nykr |
| *reisan | risi/risar | *risere/riseres | *riser/risers | giants, possibly with meaning "to rise/stand up" i.e. "towering" |
| *saiwaz + *wextiz | sjövættr/sjövættir | *sǣƿiht/sǣƿihtas | *Seawight/Seawights | sea spirit |
| *swartaz + *albaz | svartálfr/svartálfar | *sƿeartælf/*sƿeartælfas | Swartelf/Swartelves | Black Elves, black-haired, subterranean spirits possibly synonymous with "dwarf" |
| Troll | Troll | Troll | nature spirits origin of the word is unknown Faroe, Orkney, and Shetland islands have trow and drow |
|
| *þurisaz | þurs/þursar | þyrs/þyrsas | *thurse/thurses | giants and monsters, possibly with meaning "blood-thirsty" May have survived into NE in a single placename: the valley of Thursbitch |
| *wen | Vanr/Vanir | *Ƿan/Ƿen | *Wan/Wen (rhymes with man/men) | secondary pantheon, nature deities |
| *wextiz | vættr/vættir | ƿiht/ƿihtas | wight/wights | nature spirit, with meaning "being" (such as "human being") |
| *wurmi | ormr/ormar | ƿyrm/ƿyrmas | wyrm/wyrms | worm, snake, dragon |
| Proto-Germanic | Old Norse | Anglo-Saxon/Old English | Modern English | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *dagaz | Dagr (Dag) | Dæġ | *Day | god (oose), personification of day |
| *erþo | Jörð (Jord) | Eorðe | *Earth | goddess (oose), personification of the Earth |
| *erminaz | Eormen | *Eermen | mythical ancestor of the Hermiones | |
| *frijaz | Freyja (Freya) | Frēo | *Free | goddess (wan) of passion |
| *frijō | Frigg | Frīġe | *Frie (homophone with "fry") | goddess (oose) of love |
| *god | Gautr (Gaut) | Ġēat | *Yeat | mythical ancestor of the Geats |
| *heimaz + *dall | Heimdallr (Heimdall) | Hāma | *Home | guardian of the gods (eese) |
| *ingwaz | Yngvi | Ing | *Ing | mythical ancestor of the Ingaevones |
| *mænon | Máni | Mōna | *Moon | god (oose), personification of the Moon |
| *nerþuz | Njörðr (Nord) | Neorð | *Nearth | god (wan) of the sea |
| *naxt | Nótt | Niht | *Night | goddess (oose), personification of night |
| Seaxnēat | *Saxneat | mythical ancestor of the Anglo-Saxons | ||
| *sunnon, *sowilo | Sól (Sol) | Siġel | *Sun | goddess (oose), personification of the Sun |
| *teiwaz | Týr (Tyr) | Tīƿ | *Tue | god (oose) of battle |
| *þunraz | Þórr (Thor) | Þunor | *Thunder | god (oose) of sky |
| *wēlanduz | Völund (Volund) | Ƿeyland | *Weyland | semi-devine smith (sometimes named as king of the elves) |
| *wōdanaz | Óðinn (Odin) | Ƿōtan | *Wooden (oo as in pool) | god (oose) of wisdom |
| Proto-Germanic | Old Norse | Anglo-Saxon/Old English | Modern English | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *albaz + *heimaz | Álfheimr (Alfheim) | *Ælfhām | *Elfham | realm of the elves (especially Lightelves) |
| *ansuz + *gardaz | Ásgarðr (Asgard) | *Ōsġeard | *Ooseyard | realm of the Eese gods |
| *etunaz + *heimaz | Jötunheimr (Jotunheim) | *Eotanhām | *Ettinham | realm of the Barrowrisers (Mountain Giants) |
| *haljō | Hel | Hel | Hell | underworld |
| *īsarna + *widuz | Járnvið (Jarnvid) | *Īsernƿudu | *Ironwood | realm of Trolls |
| *medja + *gardaz | Miðgarðr (Midgard) | Middanġeard | *Midyard | physical world, realm of humans "Middle-Earth" from misinterpretation as "middaneard" |
| *? + *heimaz | Múspellheimr (Muspellheim) | *Muspellhām | *Muspelham | realm of the Ealettins (Fire Giants) |
| *nibulō + *heimaz | Niflheimr (Niflheim) | *Neoƿolhām | *Neelham | "Fog Home", realm of the Rimethurses (Frost Giants) |
| *niþar + *felþuz | Niðavellir (Nidavellir) | *Niþerfeldas | *Netherfields | subterranean realm of the Dwarfs |
| *niþar + *felza | Niðafjöll (Nidafjöll) | *Niþerfellas | *Netherfells | mountain range in Hell |
| *swartaz + *albaz + *heimaz | Svartálfaheimr (Svartalfaheim) | *Sƿeartælfhām | *Swartelfham | realm of the Black Elves |
| *ūt + *gardaz | Utgarðr (Utgard) | *Ūtġeard | *Outyard | realm of giants |
| *wen + *heimaz | Vaniheimr (Vaniheim) | *Ƿanhām | *Wanham | realm of the Wen gods |
| Anglo-Saxon/Old English | Modern English | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| æfter ġeōl | *Afteryule | first month, reckoned from winter solstice |
| æfter liða | *Afterlith | seventh month, reckoned from summer solstice |
| ǣr ġeōl | *Ereyule | twelfth month |
| ǣr liða | *Erelith | sixth month |
| blōdmōnað | *Bloodmonth | eleventh month |
| ðrimilce | *Threemilk | fifth month |
| eostremōnað | *Eastermonth | fourth month, reckoned from the vernal equinox |
| frīġedæġ | Friday | Frīġe's day, sixth day of the week |
| haliġmōnað | *Holymonth | ninth month |
| hreðmōnað | *Rethmonth | third month |
| mōnandæġ | Monday | Mōna's day, second day of the week |
| sæternesdæġ | Saturday | Saturn's day (borrowed directly from the Romans), seventh day of the week |
| solmōnað | *Solmonth | second month |
| sunnandæġ | Sunday | Siġel's day, first day of the week |
| tīƿesdæġ | Tuesday | Tīƿ's day, third day of the week |
| þunresdæġ | Thursday | Þunor's day, fifth day of the week |
| ƿēodmōnað | *Weedmonth | eighth month |
| ƿinterfylleð | *Winterfall | tenth month, reckoned from the autumnal equinox |
| ƿōdnesdæġ | Wednesday | Ƿōtan's day, fourth day of the week |
Days were reckoned from sundown, so "sunnanniht" (*Sunnight) would be Saturday night not Sunday night. Remnants of this can be seen in Christmas Eve (the night before Christmas) and Halloween (All Hallows' Eve, the night before All Saints' Day).
| Proto-Germanic | Old Norse | Anglo-Saxon/Old English | Modern English | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| blót | blōt | *bloot | sacrificial ceremony | |
| *jíxwlan | jól | ġeōl | Yule | winter solstice |
| *þengan | þing | þing | *Thing | event, meeting, object |
| Proto-Germanic | Old Norse | Anglo-Saxon/Old English | Modern English | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *āiþumaz | āðum | *othum | brother-in-law | |
| *awōn | ái | ēam | *eem | grandparent, uncle (OE ēam was chiefly a maternal uncle) |
| *brōþēr | bróðir | brōðor | brother | brother |
| *doxtēr | dóttir | dohtor | daughter | daughter |
| *faþēr | faðir | fæder | father | father |
| *gumēn | gumi | guma | *goom | man/husband (NE "bridegroom" by mistaken association with unrelated "groom") |
| *kwinōn | kona | cƿēn | queen | woman, especially married (NE sense of "female ruler" from "king's wife") |
| *mannēn | maðr | mann | man | person ("adult human male" in NE) |
| *mōþēr | móðir | mōdor | mother | mother |
| *snuzāz | snor | snoru | *snor | daughter-in-law |
| *sunūz | sunr | sunu | son | son |
| *swīxraz | svára | sƿēor | *sweer | father- or mother-in-law |
| *swizjaz | systir | sƿeostor | sister | sister |
| *taikraz | tācor | *toker | brother-in-law (specifically husband's brother) | |
| *wīban | víf | ƿīf | wife | woman ("woman" from OE wīfmann "adult female" + "person") |
| *wirāz | ver | ƿer | *wer | man (e.g. "werwolf" : man + wolf) |
| *xusan + *bauwa | húsbóndi | hūsbonda | husband | "house-dweller," male head of household (OE verb būan "to dwell" extinct in NE) |
| Proto-Germanic | Old Norse | Anglo-Saxon/Old English | Modern English | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *dōmoz | dómr | dōm | doom | law, judgement |
| *fangan ("to catch") | ġefangen (past participle of fōn "to catch") | *fangness | prison (by analogy with Dutch gevangenis, German Gefängnis) | |
| *fangner | prisoner (by analogy with Dutch gevangene, German Gefängner) | |||
| lagu | lagu | law | law | |
| *rehta | rétr | riht | right | justice, right, entitlement, proper due |
| *rihtere | *Righter | Judge (by analogy with Dutch richter and German Richter) | ||
| *mōtom | mót | mōt | Moot | meeting, legislative assembly |
| *xafta | hapt | hæft | *haft | prisoner, captive, or slave |
| Proto-Germanic | Old Norse | Anglo-Saxon/Old English | Modern English | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *alðoz + *mann | ealdormann | Alderman | "elder man," king's representative in a shire (modern use as municipal legislative officer) | |
| jarl | eorl | Earl | nobleman (formalized after Norman Conquest as equivalent to a count) | |
| *karlaz | karl | ċeorl | churl | freeman, peasant (above thrall, below thane) ON "karl" is the source of the name Carl |
| cniht | knight | originally meant "(servant) boy," came to mean a warrior in the service of the king | ||
| *kuniŋgaz | konungr | cyning | King | male ruler |
| rēfa | Reeve | local official | ||
| *ridanan | *rīdanere | *Rider | cavalry officer by analogy with Danish and Dutch ridder, German Ritter, and Icelandic riddari, all meaning "knight" |
|
| scīrġerēfa (scīr + rēfa) | Sheriff ("shire-reeve") | shire (county) official (US chief of county police force) | ||
| *sagjáz | seggr | seċġ | *sedge | man, warrior, hero |
| *þigna | þegn | þeġn | Thane | landowner, gentry, freeman (replaced by "baron" after Normon Conquest) |
| *þrāhiloz | þrǽll | þrǣl | thrall | slave, servant |
| *xailaga ("healing") | heilagr | hāliġ ("holy") → hālġa | hallow | holy person, saint |
| Proto-Germanic | Old Norse | Anglo-Saxon/Old English | Modern English | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|