The Chiricahuas under Cochise and Geronimo;
why and how their wars happened.
The Chiricahuas under Cochise and Geronimo;
why and how their wars happened.
Upon his third surrender to General Crook, Geronimo declared: "Once I moved about like the wind. Now I surrender to you and that is all. [Shakes hands with General Crook]." (Debo 262).
The Apache, a North American Indian people of the Southwest, mainly hunted wild game and gathered cactus fruits. This lifestyle entailed a great degree of mobility due to the scarce natural resources. The Apache may be divided into six regional groups: the Western Apache, Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla, Lipan and Kiowa Apache. They belong to the Southern Athapascan linguistic family, along with the Navajo. Their name, in their own language, is Inde (or Nde) meaning "the people", as opposed to the currently used Zuni word "apache" meaning "enemy". Indeed, in addition to being skilled stalkers for hunting, they were reputable warriors, which history has proven to be an understatement. The Apache, mainly the Chiricahuas, were among the last resistive Indians and gained, along with the Cheyenne, the greatest notoriety. Leaders of the Chiricahua such as Mangas Coloradas, Victorio, Juh, Cochise and Geronimo have almost been turned into legends, by both the American Indians and the rest of the world.
Nevertheless, the fame the Chircahuas acquired in the late 1800's brought them more trouble than would ever have been necessary. The measures taken to claim their land were draconian and often not justified. Why was there such a need for war between the United States and the Chiricahuas? Who was Cochise and why was he misunderstood? Who was Geronimo and why was he to be caught 'no matter what'?
The Chiricahua, located between what are now Arizona and New Mexico had been at war with Mexico for a long time (roughly since the 1660's) over the classic issues of land and natural resources, but also because of the raids that the Apache used to perform on adjacent Mexican communities. These raids were a part of the Chiricahua's way to appropriate themselves that which they could not produce (food, guns, ammunition, tizwin and other goods). Their customs, which Nietzsche would probably have categorized in his "Master Morality", were so opposite to most of the Christian values (such as humility and religious submission) that Spaniard missionaries were often bluntly rejected, if not killed.
Nevertheless, "when Anglo-Americans assumed control of New Mexico [...] Apaches were initially deferential and friendly, for they assumed that anyone who waged war against the Mexicans must have other virtues" (Worcester 50). But the Apaches soon grew weary when they realized that the United States were just as eager, if not more, than the Mexicans to take possession of southwestern land. This discomfort was triggered by the presence of the Boundary Commission, headed by John R Bartlett, which, in 1851 entered Mimbreno country accompanied by an escort of troops. Bartlett opposed the 'policy of concentration' in the 1870's, which advocated uniting the different Apaches on one reservation, he claimed that "[it] can have but one result: it will stimulate their fondness for war" (Worcester 52). He was proved to be right. By the late 1850's U.S. Government had established treaties with various Apache tribes which promised food and other provisions to the Apache in exchange for peace. But contact with white people' diseases brought many deaths among the Apache, this grew so bothersome to the Mimbres (an Apache tribe) that on July 14 1862, Mangas Coloradas (a 70 year old leader) and several bands ambushed some 120 infantrymen at Apache Pass. In January 1863, Brigadier General J.R. reportedly said to his troops "men, that old murderer [Mangas] has got away from every soldier command and has left a trail of blood for 5000 miles on the old stage line. I want him dead or alive tomorrow morning, do you understand, I want him dead" (Worcester 90). A couple of days (the specific dates are unclear) after this, Mangas was brutally murdered during a phony 'peace-talk', a soldier took his scalp and his head was severed and sent to a phrenologist.
Mangas' death marked the already weary Apaches. Among their leaders, no one resented this more than Cochise, Mangas' son-in-law and leader of the central Apache. He was probably born between 1800 and 1810 either in northern Mexico or southeastern Arizona.
Cochise had already been at war with the U.S. for roughly two years at the time of Mangas' death. Although he grew up helping the Americans, to the point of guaranteeing safe passage to mail coaches and furnishing firewood to a stagecoach station at Apache Pass in 1858.
Nonetheless, bliss ended in late January of 1861 when Cochise was wrongfully accused of kidnapping a twelve year-old boy named Felix. On February 4 1861, Second Lieutenant George N Bascom invited Cochise at a parley in an army tent at Apache Pass. Cochise came unsuspecting with his wife, a young son, a brother and two nephews. Geronimo recalls that "Cochise offered to investigate, determine the offenders and help restore the child. When he was told he was to be a prisoner, he cut a slit in the tent and escaped." (Sweeney 151). As he was running away, Bascom supposedly shouted "shoot them down" (Sweeney 151), some fifty rounds were fired but only two bullets hit Cochise's leg.
Cochise's family was captured and at least one warrior was killed. The next day, Cochise ambushed a train, killing Mexicans and taking two American hostages. James Wallace (a stagecoach), the station master and a Hosteler went to parley with Cochise and were held hostage. On February 6, Wallace was made to write a message saying "treat my people well and I will do the same by yours, of whom I have three [four]" (Sweeney 156). Cochise requested a prisoner exchange, but Bascom refused if Felix was not recovered. Fearing attack, Cochise fled after torturing his prisoners to death. Bascom replied by killing six Apache prisoners, including Cochise's brother.
In the two months following 'the Bascom Affair', Cochise's band was held responsible for some 150 deaths.
By 1862 other Chiricahua chiefs, namely Victorio and Geronimo (the latter was not a chief, as will be explained), joined Cochise in his raids. Together, they shut off a vital supply road between Tucson and Tubac; Tubac was deserted and Tucson became an isolated bastion of 200 holdouts. The Americans were also forced to leave the stagecoach station at Apache Pass, establishing a more northerly route. This type of guerrilla warfare lasted well into 1872, when Cochise heard that Brigadier General Oliver O. Howard was coming from Washington to attempt a 'peace- talk'.Indeed, Howard was instructed that:
"the Department [of the Interior] invests you with full powers and a general discretion, to be exercised, as your own good judgment may indicate in carrying into effect it views in relation to these [the Apache] Indians... The great object of the government is: First to preserve peace between the U.S. and these as well as all other tribes of Indians. Second: to induce them to abandon their present habits of life and go upon permanent reservations." (Sweeney 348).
Howard was to be accompanied by Captain Jeffords since "Jeffords had already met Cochise and the latter had taken quite a liking to him" (Sweeney 351). Thus Howard, Jeffords and two Apaches met Cochise in the Dragoon Mountains on October 1 1872. On October 11, Cochise declared that: "Hereafter the white man and the Indian are to drink the same water, eat of the same bread, and be at peace". (Sweeney 363). Cochise had obtained that his band of Chiricahua get their reservation in a part of the Chiricahua Mountains.
This treaty, however, did not last for government officials had mistakingly assumed that Cochise ruled over the entire Apache. Thus the Bureau of Indian Affairs decided in 1874 to relocate the Indians of the Chiricahua reservation. On June 7 of that year the old (about 70 years of age) Cochise was very ill and met with Jeffords; after accurately predicting the time and date of his death, Cochise told Jeffords "I believe we will [meet again]: good friends will meet again - up there [pointing to the sky]" (Sweeney 395). Cochise did not witness the struggle of his people for their native land since he died on June 8 1874.
The Chiricahua Apache that, probably, acquired the greatest fame is Geronimo. Unlike Cochise, Geronimo was a medicine man; not a real chief although his brother-in-law, Juh, was. Yet Geronimo was seen by most as the chief of his band since he acted as a spokesman for Juh (who had a speech impediment). He was also an acclaimed and feared warrior, which earned him his popular name. Indeed, Geronimo's birth name is Goyahkla translated as "One Who Yawns" (it has been suggested that, pronounced slightly differently, it means "intelligent, shrewd, clever"), the time of his birth can be placed in the early 1820's.
Geronimo, a reference to saint Jerome, is the name Mexican warriors shouted in despair, during a raid led by Goyahkla (roughly in 1852) in which they were surrounded and all killed with arrows and spears. Goyahkla's tactics impressed his fellows and he was awarded the name Geronimo.
Much like Cochise, Geronimo harbored a strong hatred towards the Mexicans, particularly after his entire village (including his mother, his wife and three children) was annihilated in the summer of 1850 while the men were out trading. About this Geronimo said "[he] stood until all had passed, hardly knowing what [he] would do..[He] did not pray, nor did [he] resolve to do anything in particular, for [he] had not purpose left." (Debo 36). Geronimo may be considered as a spiritual man; he claimed that, later, his Power spoke to him as such: "Goyahkla! [Repeated four times.] No gun can ever kill you. I will take the bullets from the guns of the Mexicans, so they will have nothing but powder. And I will guide your arrows" (Debo 38).
His troubles with the Americans only came later, as he was following Cochise. His presence (or absence) at the tent during the "Bascom Affair" was not proven, for his account of the events are perfect but no U.S. soldier saw him there. Nevertheless, he was alongside Cochise during the remainder of the events.
He agreed to Cochise's peace treaty with Howard in late 1872 and was not reported doing any harm to anyone until Cochise's death and the dismissal of the Chiricahua Reservation. His first and only 'capture' came shortly after (April 21, 1877); he claimed that: "We thought they wanted a council and rode in to meet the officers" (Debo 104), his group was immensely outnumbered, yet Geronimo nearly killed the 'main' officer (John P. Clum) twice. He was only kept a prisoner at the San Carlos Reservation for a short while before his release (due solely to financial disagreements between the guard and 'Washington', and the fact that the Tucson sheriff did not claim him).
In April of 1882, he raided the San Carlos Reservation, freeing every Apache and compelling them to follow him. In May of 1883, General George Crook seized 52 men and 273 women from Geronimo's camp in Mexico (while he and other warriors were away) and returned them to the San Carlos Reservation. Crook gave Geronimo the opportunity of reporting to the reservation. In February 1884, Geronimo met with Lieutenant Charles Gatewood. He agreed to settle on the reservation.
Nevertheless, in May of 1885, after hearing false rumors of Crook's intention to murder him, he left the reservation accompanied by some 40 warriors and 100 women and children. Upon hearing this, people living close to the Mexican Border were, rightfully, terrified. In January 1886, Crook's troops found Geronimo's camp and seized everything that was on it, even though no Apaches were present. Demoralized, Geronimo's people demanded that he come to an agreement with Crook. Crook and Geronimo met on March 25 1886 and Geronimo, for the 'third' time, surrendered.
However, after receiving an erroneous warning that he would be hanged, Geronimo, once again, left with a mere 20 warriors and as many women and children. Crook resigned and Brigadier General Nelson A. Miles took command. His first order was to exile all Chiricahuas to Forts Marion and Pickens, Florida. He then mobilized 5000 troops (one fourth of the U.S. Army) to find Geronimo. Ultimately, Miles had to send Gatewood (A man Geronimo trusted) and two scouts. After Gatewood told the rebels about the rest of the Chiricahua, Geronimo, under strong pressure from his peers, decided to surrender on September 4, 1886, and be sent to Fort Marion.
He never escaped nor saw Arizona again; in 1894 he was transferred to Fort Sill in Oklahoma. In 1904, he rode in President Theodore Roosevelt's inaugural parade. He died on February 7 1909.
After this quick review of the major events surrounding Cochise and Geronimo's Chiricahuas, it seems all-to-simplistic to blame their wars on the renowned Apache fighting skills. History is often too complex to offer easy intelligible morals. Nevertheless, had the Apaches (fighting for their land) been granted their homes, they would have, perhaps, maintained the strong peace that existed in the mid-1800's. No one is asked to condone the often heartless way Apache killed their enemies, but, had the U.S. government considered them as 'true human beings' with the same rights as it's own citizens, a peaceful integration might have been made.
Works Cited
Debo, Angie. Geronimo. The Man, His Time, His Place. Oklahoma: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1976.
The 1995 Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. (v.7.0.2 for Macintosh). Grolier Electronic Publishing, 1995.
Sweeney, Edwin R. Cochise. Oklahoma: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
Worcester, Donald E. The Apaches. Eagles of the Southwest. Oklahoma: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1979.