2. List of Dependency Patterns We first of all give the definition for the two very important concepts complement and adjunct: A dependant is an adjunct, if it can depend on any member of a given word category. It is a complement, if it can depend only on a sub-class (including a specific word). (Engel, 1982) Dependant types are defined on the principle of paradigmatic exchangeability. We shall now give the list of basic dependant types in Contemporary Written Chinese as follows. In the following, PR. means that the dependant always preceeds its governor and FL. that the dependant always folows its governor. (pred.) refers to a Chinese predicate (verb or adjective or some other predicate) phrase with a dependant SUB (subject). "Phrase" is used to warn that a single word in the listed category, i.e. a terminal node, is not capable of functioning there, and that the desired word must be a nonterminal node, i.e. head of a phrase with one or more dependants of its own. N'/ A'/ F' etc. refers respectively to a noun or an adjective or an adverb which, as a dependant, is a copy of its governor, i.e. both the governor and the dependant being of the same lexical form. Nn / Vv / Aa etc. refers respectively to a noun or a verb or an adjective consisting of two syllables, i.e. of two Chinese characters. 2.1 Complements ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- dependant nameØ­possibleØ­possible headwordØ­ examples (syntactic Ø­governorØ­(syntagmatic Ø­ function) Ø­ Ø­ type) Ø­ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1.Ö÷Óï PR. Ø­ V Ø­ N [7] Ø­Öйú ÈËÃñN Õ¾V ÆðÀ´ ÁË¡£ (subject) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Chinese people has tood up. SUB Ø­ A Ø­ D Ø­ÎÒD ÃÇ ÒªV ½¨Á¢ РÖйú¡£ [12] Ø­ Ø­ Ø­We want to establish new China. Ø­ N [1] Ø­ V حѧϰV ÓïÑÔ ÖØÒªA¡£ Ø­(phrase)Ø­ Ø­To learn languages is important. Ø­µÄDE [1]Ø­ L (phrase) Ø­Ò» ¸öL ¾Í ÐÐV¡£One will do. Ø­(phrase)Ø­ Ø­¸ö ¸ö(L') ¸ßÐË(A)¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Everybody is glad. Ø­ Ø­ µÄDE (phrase) Ø­×ö ¹¤ µÄDE ×ßV ÁË¡£ Ø­(pred.) Ø­ Ø­Those who work are gone. Ø­ Ø­ S [3] Ø­Ê®S ÊÇV Îå µÄ ¶þ ±¶¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Ten is two times of five. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­½ñÌìNt ÐÇÆÚÈýNt¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Today [is] Wednesday. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Õâ ÕÅ ×ÀN ×Ó Èý Ìõ ÍÈN¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­This table [is] three-legged. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÌìN Æá ºÚ Æá ºÚ µÄDE¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­The sky [is] very very black. Ø­Cb [4] Ø­ Cb [4] حС ÍõN ºÍCb С ÕÅN ÊÇV ѧÉú¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Wang and Zhang are students. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. ±öÓï Ø­ V Ø­ N [7] Ø­ÎÒ °®V ×æ¹úN¡£ (object) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­I love motherland. OBJ Ø­ Ø­ D Ø­ÂèÂè ±íÑïV ÁË ËûD¡£ [2] Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Mother praised him. [5] Ø­ Ø­ V Ø­Õâ º¢ ×Ó ²» °®V ¶ÁV Êé¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­This child doesn't like reading. Ø­ Ø­ A Ø­ÎÒ ÒªV Îå ¸öL¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­I want five. Ø­ Ø­ µÄDE (phrase) Ø­Õâ ²» ÊÇVs ÎÒ Ð´ µÄDE¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­This is not what I wrote. Ø­ Ø­ L (phrase) Ø­ÈË ²» »áVz ºÜ ¶àA¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­People can not [be] many. Ø­ Ø­ S [3] Ø­Äã È¥Vz ÆÌV ´², ÎÒ À´Vz ɨ(V) µØ¡ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­You make bed, I'll sweep floor. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­»¨ ¶ù ÊÇVs ÃÀ µÄDE¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Flowers are beautiful. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÎÒ ÔÞ³ÉV Ó¸ÒA¡£ Ø­Cb [4] Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­I approve of being brave. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. ¼ä±ö FL. Ø­ V Ø­ N [7] Ø­Ëû ¸øV ѧÉúN ¶þ Ê® ±¾ Êé¡ (indirect obj)Ø­ Ø­ D Ø­He gave students twenty books. OBJ2 Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÎÒ ËÍ Ëý Ò» ¶ä õ¹å »¨¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­I sent a rose to her. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4. ¼æÓï FL. Ø­ V Ø­ N Ø­Ëû ½ÐV ÎÒ »Ø´ðV ÎÊÌâ ¡£ (subobject) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­He asked me to answer questions. SUBOB Ø­ Ø­ D حѧÉú ÃÇ Ñ¡V ÍõÎåN µ± °à ³¤¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Students elected Wangwu monitor. Ø­ Ø­ µÄDE (phrase) Ø­ÎÒ Ï²»¶V ËûD ÀÏʵ¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­I like him [for his] honesty. Ø­ Ø­ L (phrase) Ø­ÎÒ ÈÏΪV ËûD ÀÏʵ¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­I think him [to be] honest. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÎÒ ÌÖÑáV Õâ ÕÅ ×ÀN ×Ó Èý Ìõ ÍÈ¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­I dislike this table three-legged Ø­Cb [4] Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ÈÃV ËûD ×ß °É! Let him go! --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4. ¼æ²¹ FL. Ø­ V Ø­ V Ø­ÀÏʦ ½ÐV ÎÒ »Ø´ðV ÎÊÌâ¡£ (subobject Ø­ Ø­ حѧÉú ÃÇ Ñ¡V ÍõÎå µ±V °à ³¤¡£ complement)Ø­ Ø­ A Ø­ÎÒ Ï²»¶V Ëû ÀÏʵA¡£ SOC Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÎÒ ÈÏΪV Ëû ÀÏʵA¡£ Ø­ Ø­ N (phrase) Ø­ÎÒ ÌÖÑáV Õâ ÕÅ ×À ×Ó Èý Ìõ ÍÈN¡£ Ø­Cb [4] Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ÈÃV Ëû ×ßV °É! ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5. ½é²¹ Ø­ V Ø­ P (phrase) Ø­Ëû À´V µ½P ÎÒ µÄ ¼Ò¡£ (prepositionalØ­ A Ø­ Ø­He came to my house. complement) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­°Ñ Õâ ƪ ·­ÒëV ³ÉP Ó¢ Óï¡£ PC Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Translate this into English. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Ëý À´V ×ÔP ¹ã¶« Ê¡¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­She comes from Guangdong Province Ø­ Ø­ حСº¢ °Ñ µãÐÄ ·ÅV ÔÚP ³éÌë Àï¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­The child put pastry in drawer. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Ëû ΪPÈËÃñ ·þÎñVÖÕÉí¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­He served the people all his life. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­º¼ÖÝ ÒÔP ·ç¾° ÓÅÃÀ ÖøÃûA¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Hangzhou is famous for scenery. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­¸øV µÐÈË ÒÔP ÖÂÃü µÄ ´ò»÷¡£ Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­Give the enemy a deadly blow. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7. ½é±ö FL. Ø­P Ø­ N Ø­°ÑP ËûD ´ò ËÀ ÁË¡£ (complement Ø­ Ø­ D Ø­Beat him to death. of prep.) Ø­ Ø­ W (phrase) Ø­¶ÔP РµÄDE ÀÏ µÄDE Ò»Ñù ¿´´ý¡£ CP Ø­ Ø­ µÄDE (phrase) Ø­Treat the old and the new samely. Ø­ Ø­ V (phrase) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ A (phrase) Ø­Ëû À´V µ½P ÎÒ µÄ ¼Ò¡£ Ø­ Ø­ S [3] Ø­°Ñ Õâ ƪ ÎÄÕ ·­ÒëV ³ÉP Ó¢ Óï¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Ëý À´ ×ÔP ¹ã¶« Ê¡(N)¡£ Ø­ Ø­ حСº¢ °Ñ µãÐÄ ·Å ÔÚP ³éÌë Àï(W)¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Ëû ΪP ×æ¹úN¡¢ÎªPÈËÃñN ·þÎñVÖÕÉí¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­º¼ÖÝ ÒÔP ·ç¾° ÓÅÃÀA ÖøÃû¡£ Ø­ Ø­Cb [4] Ø­¸ø µÐÈË ÒÔP ÖÂÃü µÄ ´ò»÷N¡£ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8. ²¹Á¬ FL. Ø­C Ø­ V Ø­ËäÈ»C ÏÂV Óê ÁË, ÎÒ ²¢ û Í£ ¹¤¡£ (complement Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Though it rained, I didn't stop. of conj.) Ø­ Ø­ A Ø­ÒòΪC ƯÁÁ, ËùÒÔC Ëû ϲ»¶V Ëý CC Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Because pretty, [so] he liks her. Ø­ Ø­ N (phrase) Ø­Ëû ²»µ«C È¥V ÁË, ¶øÇÒC Ó®V ÁË¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­He not only went but also won. Ø­ Ø­ (predicate) Ø­¾¡¹ÜC ÄÇ Ìì ÐÇÆÚ ÌìN, Ø­Cb [4] Ø­Cb [4] Ø­ µ«C Ëû È´ ²» ÔÚ(V) ¼Ò¡£ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9. ²¹ºó PR. Ø­W Ø­ N Ø­ÀíÂÛN ÉÏW theoretically (complement Ø­ Ø­ D Ø­ÎÒD ÃÇ ÖÐW ¼äW among us of postp.) Ø­ Ø­ W Ø­ÏÂW ÃæW ÓÐ ÈË CW Ø­ Ø­ Ø­There is somebody down there. Ø­ Ø­ µÄDE (phrase) Ø­·¿ ×Ó µÄDE ÍâW ÃæW outside house Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Äà ÄãD ºÍCb ÎÒD À´ËµW Ø­ Ø­Cb [4] Ø­as for you and me ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10. Ç÷²¹ FL. Ø­V Ø­ Vq Ø­°Ñ É¡ ´øV ÉÏVq¡£ (Vq-compl.) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Take an umbrella on you. VqC Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÎÅV ÆðVq À´Vq ºÜ Ïã¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­[It] smells very sweet. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Ëû ×ß(V) ³ö(Vq) È¥(Vq)¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­He went out. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11. ²¹µÄ PR. Ø­µÄDE Ø­ N Ø­Öйú ÈËÃñN µÄDE ¸ïÃü (complement Ø­Ö®ZHI Ø­ Ø­Chinese people's revolution of DE ) Ø­ Ø­ D Ø­ÎÒD ÃÇ µÄDE ÊÂÒµ our cause CDe Ø­ Ø­ V حѧϰV ÓïÑÔ µÄDE ·½·¨ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­the way to learn languages Ø­ Ø­ P (phrase) Ø­¹ØÓÚP ʱ Ê µÄDE ±¨¸æ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­report on current affairs Ø­ Ø­ A Ø­ÃÀÀöA µÄDE ¹ÃÄï Ø­ Ø­ Ø­beautiful girls Ø­ Ø­ W (phrase) Ø­ÎÝ ÀïW µÄDE ÈË Ø­ Ø­ Ø­the men in the house Ø­ Ø­ F (2-syllable) Ø­¾­³£F µÄDE ¹¤×÷, Ò»¹áF µÄDE ÈÎÎñ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­usual work, consistent task Ø­ Ø­ T Ø­ÆËͨ(Tx) µÄDE Ò» Éù Ø­ Ø­ Ø­the sound putong Ø­ Ø­ S [3] Ø­¸ïÃüN Ö®ZHI ³É °Ü Ø­ Ø­ Ø­success or failure of revolution Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÃÀÀöA ¡¢Cb Ó¸ÒA µÄDE Öйú ¹ÃÄï Ø­ Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­pretty brave Chinese girls ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12. ²¹µØ PR. Ø­µØDE2 Ø­ A Ø­ÈÏÕæA µØDE2 ¶Á Êé (complement Ø­ Ø­ Ø­study earnestly of DE2) Ø­ Ø­ F (2-syllable) Ø­¾­³£F µØDE2 ¹ØÐÄ ÈºÖÚ¡£ CDe2 Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Care for the masses often. Ø­ Ø­ V (phrase) ح˵V ²» ³ö µØDE2 ÄÑÊÜ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­to suffer so much that one can Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ not describe it Ø­ Ø­ N Ø­Ó¦¸Ã ÀúÊ·N µØDE2 ¿´´ý ÎÊÌâ¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­should treat problems historically Ø­ Ø­T Ø­ÆËͨTx ÆËͨTx µØDE2 ÂÒ Ìø Ø­ Ø­ Ø­desperately jump putong putong Ø­ Ø­ Ø­¿Í¹ÛA ¡¢Cb ¹«ÕýA µØ ´¦Àí Ëü¡£ Ø­ Ø­Cb [4] Ø­handle it objectively and justly ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13. ²¹µÃ FL. Ø­ µÃDE3 Ø­ A Ø­¸É µÃDE3 ºÃA ¡£ Well done. (complement Ø­ Ø­ V (phrase) Ø­»î µÃDE3 ûV Òâ˼¡£ of DE3) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­live meaninglessly CDe3 Ø­ Ø­ Vj; Vq Ø­¿Þ µÃDE3 ˵V ²» ³ö »° À´ ¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­cried as not to be able to speak Ø­ Ø­ Ø­¸É µÃDE3 ÍêVj¡£ can finish it Ø­ Ø­ ح˵ µÃDE3 ³öVq À´Vq¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­can speak it out Ø­ Ø­ حŪ µÃDE3 Ëû ²» ÖªV ÈçºÎ ÊÇ ºÃ¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­he was made as not to know the way Ø­ Ø­ ºÜHEN Ø­ºÃ µÃDE3 ºÜHEN¡£ Very good. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Ëý Ìø Îè Ìø µÃDE3 °ôA ¼« ÁË¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­she danced excellently Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Éú µÃDE3 ΰ´óA, ËÀ µÃDE3 ¹âÈÙA¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Live great, die glorious. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­´ò µÃDE3 ÎÈA ¡¢×¼A ¡¢ºÝA¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­beat firmly, accurately and hard. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14. °Ñ²¹ PR. Ø­ V Ø­°ÑBA; ½«JIANG Ø­°ÑBA Ò·þ Ï´V ÁË¡£ (Ba-compl.) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­washed the clothes BaC Ø­ Ø­ Ø­°ÑBA µØ ɨV ¸É¾» ÁË¡£ [5] Ø­ Ø­ Ø­swept the floor clean Ø­ Ø­ حѧÉú °ÑBA ¹¦¿Î ×öV ÁË¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­students have done homework Ø­ Ø­ Ø­½«JIANG ¸ïÃü ½øÐÐV µ½ µ×¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­carry out revolution to the end Ø­ Ø­ Ø­°ÑBA ×À ×Ó¡¢Cb°ÑBA ÒÎ ×Ó ²ÁV¸É¾» Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­wipe the table and chairs clean ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15. ¸´Êý FL. Ø­N Ø­ÃÇMEN Ø­ÏÈÉúN ÃÇMEN, ŮʿN ÃÇMEN (plural-compl)Ø­Dr Ø­ Ø­Ladies and gentlemen. MnC Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÎÒD ÃÇMEN, ÄãD ÃÇMEN, ËûD ÃÇMEN Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ we, you and they Ø­ Ø­ Ø­¸ç ¸çN¡¢½ã ½ãN ÃÇMEN Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ Ø­brothers and sisters ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16. ÐòÊý PR. Ø­ S Ø­ µÚDI Ø­µÚDI ÎåS the fifth ordinal-compl.Ø­ Ø­ Ø­µÚDI 305 (S) Ò³ the 305th page DiC Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ page 305 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17. Ãû׺ FL.Ø­ N Ø­×ÓZI, Í·TOU, ¶ùERØ­×ÀN ×ÓZI, ÒÎN ×ÓZI (noun-affix Ø­ Ø­ Ø­table, chair complement) Ø­ Ø­ حʯN Í·TOU, ľN Í·TOU NC Ø­ Ø­ Ø­stone, wood Ø­ Ø­ Ø­µçÓ°N ¶ù film ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18. ÌØÁ¿ PR. Ø­ N Ø­ Lt Ø­Ò» ¶¥Lt ñN ×Ó a hat (classifier Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Èý Á¾Lt ×ÔÐÐ ³µN three bikes complement Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ Ëû Âò ÁË Á½ ¿éLt ±íN for noun ) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ He bought two watches. LCN [10] Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19. ÃûÁ¿ FL.Ø­V Ø­ Ln [7] Ø­Ëý ƳV ÁË Ëû Á½ ÑÛLn¡£ (classifier Ø­ Ø­ Ø­She shot two glances at him. complement Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Ëû ´òV ÁË ÎÒ Ò» °ÍÕÆLn¡£ for verb) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­He gave me a slap. LCV [10] Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2.2 Adjuncts ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- dependant nameØ­possibleØ­possible headwordØ­ examples (syntactic Ø­governorØ­(syntagmatic Ø­ function) Ø­ Ø­ type) Ø­ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1. ×´Óï PR. Ø­V Ø­µØDE2 (phrase) Ø­½ôÕÅ µØDE2 ¹¤×÷V (adverbial) Ø­A Ø­ Ø­work intensely AdvA [6] Ø­ Ø­P (phrase) Ø­Ëû ÔÚP ÉϺ£ ÉÏV ѧ¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­He studies at Shanghai. Ø­ Ø­W (phrase) ح̨ ÉÏW ×øV ×Å Ö÷ϯ ÍÅ¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­On the platform sits presidium. Ø­ Ø­F Ø­Ëû ÈÔF ºÜF ½¡¿µA¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­He still very healthy. Ø­ Ø­A Ø­ÇÚ·ÜA ѧϰV ¡¢ Ó¢ÓÂA ¶·ÕùV Ø­ Ø­ Ø­study diligently, struggle bravely Ø­ Ø­Nt Ø­ÎÒ 1960 ÄêNt ³öÉúV¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­I was born in 1960. Ø­ Ø­V (with ×Å as itsحЦV ×ÅZHE ˵V said smiling Ø­ Ø­aspect dependant)Ø­×ßV ×ÅZHE ÇÆV go and see Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Õâ ´ÎLc ÍêV ÁË¡£ Ø­ Ø­Lc (phrase) Ø­It's coming to an end this time. Ø­ Ø­ حΪPÈËÃñ ·Ü¶·V ÖÕ Éí¡ Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­Struggle all life for the people ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Á¬¶¯ FL. Ø­V Ø­V Ø­Ëû ÍÆV ÃÅ ½øV À´ ֪ͨV ÎÒ ÃÇ¡£ (verb-adjunct)Ø­ Ø­ Ø­He pushed door in to notify us. VA [8] Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÎÒ ³ÔV ½È ×Ó ³ÔV'±¥ ÁË¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­I ate jiaozi full. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÎÒ ÓÐV ¾ä »° ÒªVz ˵¡£ Ø­Cb [4] Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­I have a word to say. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. ²¹Óï FL. Ø­V Ø­µÃDE3 (phrase) Ø­Ò» ¾ä »° ¶ºV µÃDE3 ´ó¼Ò ÀÖ ÁË¡£ (postmodifier)Ø­A Ø­ Ø­His word made all into laughter. PMOD [6] Ø­ Ø­Lc (phrase) [10] Ø­¿´V Ò» ÏÂLc, ÊäV ÁË Èý ´ÎLc Ø­ Ø­ Ø­have a look, failed three times Ø­ Ø­Vj Ø­×öV ÍêVj ÁË ×÷Òµ¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­have done up homework Ø­ Ø­A Ø­Ï´V ¸É¾»A ÊÖ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­wash hands clean Ø­ Ø­V' [10] Ø­¿´V ¿´V' have a look Ø­ Ø­V (between comma Ø­Ëý ×ßV ¹ý À´, ±§V ×Å º¢ ×Ó Ø­ Ø­ and ×ÅZHE) Ø­She came over, taking baby in arms Ø­ Ø­P حŬÁ¦ ѧϰV ÒÔP ±¨Ð§ ×æ¹ú¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Study hard to serve motherland. Ø­ Ø­Nt Ø­³Ô ¼¦ ³ÔV ÁË Ò» СʱNt £ Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ Ø­ate chicken an hour ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4. ¶¨Óï PR. Ø­N Ø­µÄDE (phrase) Ø­ÎÒ µÄDE ×æ¹ú; ½ð É« µÄDE º£ (attribute) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­my motherland; golden sea AtrA Ø­ Ø­A Ø­ºÃA ÈËN; ´ÏÃ÷A º¢N ×Ó Ø­ Ø­ Ø­good man; clever child Ø­ Ø­N [7] [12] حѧÉúN ËÞÉáN Ø­ Ø­ Ø­students' dormitory Ø­ Ø­V ح˯V ÅÛN Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­sleeping robe ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5. ÏÞ¶¨ PR. Ø­N Ø­L (phrase) [10] Ø­Èý ¸öL ÈËN three men (Determiner) Ø­ Ø­ [7] Ø­Îå ½ïL Î÷ºìÊÁN five jin of tomato DetA Ø­ Ø­D Ø­ÕâЩD ¼Ò»ïN these fellows Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÄÄЩD ÈËN which men Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÎÒD ÃÇ ¹ú¼ÒN our country Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ حʲôD ¶«Î÷N what a thing ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6. Ö÷Ìâ PR. Ø­V Ø­N [7] Ø­ÎÒD Í· Í´V ¡£ (topic) Ø­A Ø­ Ø­I [have a] head ache. TOP Ø­ Ø­D Ø­Õâ ±¾ ÊéN ¼ÛÖµ ²» ´óA¡£ [12] Ø­(pred.) Ø­ Ø­This doesn't worth much. Ø­ Ø­ L (phrase) Ø­ËûD ÐÄÇé ²» ºÃA¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­He is in low spirit. Ø­ Ø­ µÄDE (phrase) Ø­Õâ Ò» λL ÉíÌå ½¡¿µ¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­This [man] is healthy. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Õâ ¼þ ÊÂN, Äã ±ð ÉúÆøV¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­[about] this, don't get angry. Ø­Cb [4] Ø­Cb [4] Ø­¶Á Êé µÄDE ÐÄ ¶¼ ·ÉV ÁË¡£ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7. ²¢¶¯ FL. Ø­V Ø­V Ø­Ëû Õû Ìì ³ÔV ºÈV ÍæV ÀÖV¡£ (coordinatingØ­ Ø­ Ø­He eats, drinks, plays and seeks adjunct of V)Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ pleasure all day long. VCoA [9] Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8. ²¢Ãû FL. Ø­N Ø­N [7] حΪ ¹¤N Å©N ±øN ·þÎñ¡£ (coordinatingØ­ Ø­ Ø­Serve workers, peasants and adjunct of N)Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ soldiers. NCoA [9] Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9. ²¢ÐÎ FL. Ø­A Ø­A Ø­ÃÀÀöA Ó¸ÒA µÄ Å® ±ø (coordinatingØ­ Ø­ Ø­Pretty and brave woman soldiers. adjunct of A)Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ ACoA [9] Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10. Íâλ PR. Ø­D Ø­N [7] Ø­Å©ÃñN, ËûDÃÇ ÊÇ ÀͶ¯ Õß¡£ (apposition Ø­N Ø­ Ø­Peasants, they are labourers. adjunct) Ø­(phrase Ø­V (phrase) Ø­°Ñ µÐÈË ´òV °Ü, ÕâD ÊÇ Ä¿µÄ¡£ AppA Ø­with Dz)Ø­ Ø­To beat enemy, this is aim. Ø­ Ø­A (phrase) Ø­Ëý ƯÁÁA, ÕâDz Äã ²» ÖªµÀ ? Ø­ Ø­Cb [4] Ø­She is pretty, this don't you know? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11. ͬλ FL. Ø­Nz Ø­N ( after "," or Ø­ÎÒ µ½ ¹ý »ÆɽN -- (epithet) Ø­N Ø­ "--" or with Dz)Ø­ Öйú ÖøÃû µÄ ÂÃÓΠʤµØ(N)¡£ EpA Ø­(phrase)Ø­ [7] Ø­I have been to Huangshan, Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ famous scenic spot in China. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÎÒ Ï²»¶ ±±¾©NÕâDz¸ö ÃÀÀö µÄ ³ÇÊС£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­I like Beijing this beautiful city Ø­ Ø­ Ø­»ÆºÓN, Öлª Ãñ×å µÄ Ò¡ÀºN Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­Huanghe, cradle of Chinese nation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12. ÏÞÁ¿ PR. Ø­L Ø­S Ø­ÈýS ÕÅL ×À ×Ó three desks (adjunct of Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Ê®S ÌõL ¹· ten dogs classifier)Ø­ Ø­Dz Ø­ÕâDz ±­L Ë® this cup of water LA Ø­ Ø­ حÿDz ¸öL ÈË every person Ø­ Ø­L' Ø­¸öL ¸öL' ¸ßÐË¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Everybody is glad. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­´óÔ¼ ÓÐ ÆßS ¡¢Cb °ËS ¸öL ÈË¡£ Ø­ Ø­Cb [4] Ø­There are about 7 to 8 persons. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13. Á¬Êý FL. Ø­S Ø­S Ø­ÎåS °ÙS ÈýS Ê®S ¶þS (=532) (S-adjunct) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­¶þS µãS Áù (=2.6) SA Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÈýS ÓÖS ÎåS ·ÖÖ®S ÈýS Ø­ Ø­ Ø­°ÙS ·ÖÖ®S ÎåS µãS ÁùS (=5.6%) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14. ʱÌå FL. Ø­V Ø­×ÅZHE,ÁËLE, ¹ýGUOØ­Ëû ÔÚ ´òV ×ÅZHE Çò ÄØ¡£ (aspect) Ø­ Ø­ Ø­He is now playing ball. AspA Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÏÂV ÁËLE Óê ÁË¡£ Ø­ Ø­ Ø­It has rained. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­¿´V ¹ýGUO Õâ ³¡ µçÓ° Âð? Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ Ø­Have [you] seen this film? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15. ×´¾ä PR. Ø­V Ø­ F Ø­×ÜÖ®F, ³É¼¨ ºÜ ´óA¡£ circumstantialØ­A Ø­ Ø­In a word, achievement is great. CirA [11] Ø­N Ø­ V (phrase) Ø­Ò»°ã µØ ˵V À´, ²» ´í¡£ Ø­(phrase)Ø­ Ø­generally speaking, not bad. Ø­ Ø­ W (phrase) Ø­ÊÂʵ ÉÏW, Ëû ¾Í ÔÚV ÉϺ£¡£ Ø­(pred.) Ø­ Ø­In fact, he was just in Shanghai. Ø­ Ø­ P (phrase) Ø­¹ØÓÚP Õâ ¼þ ÊÂ, Äã ±ð ÉúÆøV¡£ Ø­ Ø­ [12] Ø­On this matter, don't get angry. Ø­ Ø­ Ø­°¡T, ¶à ÃÀA ѽ! Ø­ Ø­ T Ø­Aha, how beautiful! Ø­ Ø­ Ø­°¥Ó´T, ÎÒ ÌÛ ËÀ ÁË¡£ Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­Ouch, I am aching to death. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16. ÓïÆø FL. Ø­V Ø­ Zyq Ø­ÏÂV Óê ÁËLE ÂðME? (Zyq-adjunct)Ø­A Ø­ÂðME, ÄØNE Ø­Is it raining already? ZyqA Ø­N Ø­°ÉBA, ÁËLE Ø­ÏÂV ×Å Óê ÄØNE¡£ Ø­(phrase)Ø­°¡A, ѽYA Ø­It is now just raining. Ø­ Ø­ÄÄNA, ÍÛWA Ø­Ã÷Ìì Îå Ò» ½ÚN ÂðME? Ø­(pred.) Ø­ Ø­[Is] tomorrow May Day? Ø­ Ø­ Ø­ÔÛ ÃÇ ×ßV °ÉBA! Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Let's go! Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Ë­ ´óA ÄØNE? Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Who [is] older? Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Äã È¥V ÄØNE, »¹ÊÇ ÁôV ÄØNE? Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Are you leaving or staying? Ø­ Ø­ Ø­¶àô ׳¹ÛA ÄÄNA ! Ø­ Ø­ Ø­How magnificent! ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 17. ±»¶¯ PR. Ø­V Ø­±»BEI ¸øGEI Ø­Ëû ±»BEI ºÝºÝ ´òV ÁË Ò» ¶Ù¡£ (passive) Ø­ Ø­ÓÉYOU ÈÃRANG Ø­He was beaten very hard. BeiA Ø­ Ø­ Ø­Ëû ¸øGEI ÈË ´ò ÁË¡£ Ø­ Cb [4] Ø­ Ø­He was beaten by somebody. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- [1] It is only limited to the so-called nominal predicate. There are two kinds of such sentences: 1) noun predicate sentence; 2) DE-predicate (µÄ) sentence. DE-phrase, often translated into English as what-clause (e.g. ËûTA (he) ¿´KAN (see) µÄDE --> what he saw; ʹSHI (make) ÎÒWO (me) ¸ßÐËGAOXING (glad) µÄDE --> what made me glad), is essentially also a noun phrase with its governor omitted. The prerequisites for the nominal predicate are: 1) the noun or DE must first form a phrase before it can function as predicate; 2) there are no other possible candidate verbs or adjectives in the position of predicate of the sentence or clause; 3) there should be a noun or pronoun (subject) just before it. Such nominal predicate sentences are mainly used to express one's age, origin, facial appearance or identity. Most of the nominal predicates can be turned into linking-verbal predicate with the insertion of the linking verb ÊÇSHI (be). Therefore we have two ways to draw syntactic trees, taking the sentence Õâ (this) ÕÅ (?) ×À (table) ×Ó (?) Èý (three) Ìõ (?) ÍÈ (leg) (This table is three-legged) as an example: (1) ÍÈTUI (2) * TOP / \ LCN TOP / \ OBJ ×ÀZHUO ÌõTIAO ×ÀZHUO ÍÈTUI LCN / \ NC \ LA LCN / \ NC \ LCN ÕÅZHANG ×ÓZI ÈýSAN ÕÅZHANG ×ÓZI ÌõTIAO LA / LA / \ LA ÕâZHE ÕâZHE ÈýSAN The null-node * is introduced to represent the omitted linking verb axis in Tree (2). We now, for the time being, adopt the first way. [2] Chinese object in most cases follows its governor, but there are some occasions where object is placed before the verb. In Chinese passive structure, i.e. when the verb has got a passive preposition or particle as adjunct (BeiA), the object is bound to precede the verb. There is also a kind of implicit passive sentences with the object before the verb, for instance, ¼¦JI (chicken) ³ÔCHI (eat) ÁËLE ¡£But since we find both V0 and V1 under the entry CHI in the lexicon, the sentence is ambiguous, hence the 2 possible analyses: (1) ³ÔCHI (2) ³ÔCHI SUB / \ AspA OBJ / \ AspA ¼¦JI ÁËLE ¼¦JI ÁËLE We'll have to take background analysisis to disambiguate it. (For further discussion on word order concerning object, see 5.4.3 subjects and objects.) [3] Numeral when used as subject, object, complement of preposition or complement of DE can only occur in mathematical patterns like ¼Ó (add/plus), ¼õ (subtract/minus), ³Ë (multiply/times), ³ý (divide) and µÈÓÚ(ÊÇ) (be equal to/be)" e.g. (1) Èý (three) Ê® (ten) ÊÇ (is) Îå (five) µÄ ('s) Áù (six) ±¶ (times) Thirty is six times of five. (2) Îå (five) ³Ë (multiply) ÒÔ (by) Áù (six) µÈÓÚ (equal) Èý (three) Ê® (ten) Five multiplied by six is equal to thirty. (1) ÊÇSHI (2) µÈDENG SUB / \ OBJ SUB / \ OBJ Ê®SHI ±¶BEI ³ËCHENG ÓÚYU SA / AtrA / \ DetA SUB / \ PC \ CP ÈýSAN µÄDE ÁùLIU ÎåWU ÒÔYI Ê®SHI CDe / \ CP \ SA ÎåWU ÁùLIU ÈýSAN Therefore, the numeral subject in the English sentence "One is enough" must be translated as a classifier phrase "Ò»YI ¸öGE" in Chinese instead of a bare numeral "Ò»YI", hence the correct translation: "Ò»YI ¸öGE ¹»GO ÁËLE". [4] Only the coordinating conjunction whose coordinated phrases are the required dependants listed in the column can function there. [5] There is sort of transformation between object and Ba-complement: V + (X) + OBJ --> Ba-complement (BA + N) + V + (X) (X is some other dependant of the same verb, which is usually a prerequisite for such surface-to-surface transformation). For example, the sentence "I HAVE READ THE BOOK": ÎÒ ¿´ Íê ÁË Êé ¡£ --> ÎÒ °Ñ Êé ¿´ Íê ÁË ¡£ V X1 X2 N (OBJ) --> Pba (BaC) N V X1 X2 ¿´KAN ¿´KAN SUB / \ PMOD \ AspA \ OBJ SUB / BaC / \ PMOD \ AspA ÎÒWO ÍêWAN ÁËLE ÊéSHU ÎÒWO °ÑBA ÍêWAN ÁËLE \ CP ÊéSHU [6] The difference between adverbial (AdvA) and post modifier (PMOD) in Chinese is worth studying. They both are governed by a verb or an adjective as its adjunct, but AdvA is always preceding its governor while PMOD forever following it, hence the naming of post modifier. PMOD is mainly used to denote a result or the times of an action. One should be careful to make a proper decision whether to translate an adverbial in English into a Chinese adverbial or a Chinese post modifier, e.g. 1) He studies hard (AdvA). --> ËûTA ѧϰXUEXI ŬÁ¦NULI (PMOD) ¡£ 2) Study hard (AdvA), please. --> ÇëQING ŬÁ¦NULI (AdvA) ѧϰXUEXI ¡£ [7] In the structure N1 + N2, there are at least 4 possible relations in between, i.e. 1) N2 2) N2 3) N1 4) N1 AtrA / DetA / (N1 here is EpA / NCoA / N1 N1/Ln used as Ln) N2 N2 Relation (1) is the default value for N1 + N2, while the others have their respective context constraints. For (2), it must appear in S + N1 + N2 ( --> S + Ln + N), with the category of the word N1 in this case being dynamically changed into noun classifier (Ln). (3) appears in the structure N1 + "," + N2 or N1 + "--" + N2, or in the case that N2 is a phrase with its dependant to be the words "ÕâZHE" (this/these) or "ÄÇNA" (that/those). As for (5), N1 and N2 should both be one-character (occasionally two-character) words. Besides, in the pattern N1 + N2 + V/A, N1 may function as topic (TOP) for the predicate V/A, while N2 is the subject of V/A (see [12]), it may also be that N1 serves as the object and N2 as the subject of V; and in the pattern V + N1 + N2, N1 may be used as indirect object (OBJ2) of V while N2 the direct object (OBJ). [8] It is in the circle of Chinese grammar called multiverb pattern: V + VA + VA + ..., which is usually used to indicate a series of actions in succession. [9] Chinese asyndetic coordination results from the omission of DUNHAO "¡¢" in a coordinated parallel words group through frequent co-appearance of the words. Each coordinated element most often consists of only one character, occasionally of two characters, and never of more than two -- in that case one should not omit the "¡¢". On any occasion, the number of characters in each coordinated element must be same, i.e. they are all made up either of one or of two characters, owing to the effect of the number of character(s), or syllable(s), on structure (see 0.1.3). In fact, the coordinated elements in an asyndetic coordination must be parallel both phonetically and semantically, i.e. they should be same-syllabled and semantically belong to a same subset, for example, the elements all refer to the subset of profession as in "¹¤(worker) Å©(peasant) ±ø(soldier), or all are actions as in "³Ô(eat) ºÈ(drink) Íæ(play) ÀÖ(seek pleasure)". Thanks to the paralell rule, the multi- meanings for a character as a coordinated element are easily differentiated out by the language user, e.g. LE in the above structure can only mean "to seek pleasure" although it has various other meanings as "glad", "laugh", etc. It is just because of this paralell feature in coordinated structure that many characters which by themselves can hardly be independently used as words in Contemporary Chinese -- morphemes as they are usually called -- can well function as elements in coordinated structure, for in other structures they are too ambiguous to be regarded as words and therefore they must first combine with other characters (morphemes) to form words before they are used as a governor and/or dependant in a sentence. Some often used such coordinated structures are gradually seen as idioms today. In the case of Chinese asyndetic coordination, we now have a principle set up that the first element should always govern the other coordinated elements whose dependant types are named XCoA, X indicating the word category of the dependants, e.g. 1) ¹¤N Å©N ±øN ÊÇV Ö÷ÈËN ¡£ GONG NONG BING SHI ZHUREN worker peasant soldier are master ÊÇSHI SUB / \ OBJ ¹¤GONG Ö÷ÈËZHUREN NCoA / \ NCoA Å©NONG ±øBING 2) ËûD ÕûA ÌìNt ³ÔV ºÈV ÍæV ÀÖV ¡£ TA ZHENG TIAN CHI HE WAN LE he all day eat drink play seek-pleasure ³ÔCHI SUB / AdvA / \ VCoA \ VCoA \ VCoA ËûTA ÌìTIAN ºÈHE ÍæWAN ÀÖLE AtrA / ÕûZHENG 3) ´òV µÃZ ÎÈA ×¼A ºÝA ¡£ DA DE WEN ZHUN HEN beat so-that firm accurate hard beat firmly, accurately and hard ´òDA PMOD / µÃDE3 CDe3 / ÎÈWEN ACoA / \ ACoA ×¼ZHUN ºÝHEN [10] The division of dependant types into complements and adjuncts leads to some pairs of parallel constituents, which play the similar role in syntax and therefore can never co-exist, e.g. post modifier (PMOD) and classifier complement for verb (LCV); Derterminer (DetA) in the form of classifier phrase and classifier complement for noun (LCN). Both PMOD and LCV follow their governor verb, their difference lies in that the former is oriented to all verbs, taking the form of classifier-for-action Lc or the verb-copy V' while the latter must be the noun-classifier in the valency of the verb governor. Similarly, the difference between the preceding dependant LCN and L-phrase as DetA lies in that the former is a valency of the governor noun described under its entry in lexicon while the latter is but an adjunct. The all-powerful classifer ¸öGE can precede almost any noun with the least rhetoric colour and is therefore always used as DetA. Another abstract classifier ÖÖZHONG often, though not always, functions as DetA. All the unit classifiers, noun classifiers and classifiers for action are used only as DetA. Complement Adjunct 1) ¿´KAN Ò»YI ÑÛYAN (LCV) ¿´KAN Ò»YI ¿´KAN (PMOD) look an eye (have a look) look a look (have a look) ¿´KAN Ò»YI ÏÂXIA (PMOD) look a moment (have a glance) ¿´KAN Ò»YI ´ÎCI (PMOD) look a time (look once) 2) ÈýSAN λWEI (LCN) ÀÏLAO ͬ־TONGZHI; ÈýSAN ¸öGE (DetA) ͬ־TONGZHI three (?) old comrades three (?) comrades ÎåWU Æ¥PI (LCN) ²¼BU; ÎåWU Ã×MI (DetA) ²¼BU five bolts of cloth; five metres of cloth Ò»YI ¸ËGAN (LCN) ±ÊBI; Ò»YI ºÐHE (DetA) ±ÊBI a (?) pen a box of pens ÕâZHE ³¡CHANG (LCN) ʹÊSHIGU; Õâ ´ÎCI (DetA) ÊÂ¹Ê this (?) accident this time accident Õâ ¸öGE (DetA) ÊÂ¹Ê this (?) accident [11] Circumstancial adjunct always appears at the beginning of a sentence or clause with a "," immediately following it. [12] The difference between topic (TOP) and subject (SUB) lies in that subject is much more closely related to the predicate verb, hence the obvious co-occurence of two (although it is not very unusual in Chinese to omit subject when it can be made out in context), while topic, more like a circumstancial adjunct (CirA) or an attribute (AtrA) in function, is by no means compulsory. If we have some point in categorizing subject as a complement, we surely can hardly do the same with topic. Topic always stands before subject plus predicate. If the subject happens to be omitted, topic takes the role of subject -- it only concerns the change of syntactic roles, with the semantic role always the same. Compare: 1) ¸¸Ç×FUQIN (father) ÉíÌåSHENTI (body) ºÜHEN (very) ½¡¿µJIANKANG (healthy); ¸¸Ç×FUQIN ºÜHEN ½¡¿µJIANKANG; ¸¸Ç×FUQIN µÄDE ('s) ÉíÌåSHENTI ºÜHEN (very) ½¡¿µJIANKANG ¡£ Father [is] very healthy. ½¡¿µJIANKANG ½¡¿µ ½¡¿µ TOP / SUB / \ AdvA SUB / \ AdvA SUB / \ AdvA ¸¸Ç×FUQIN ÉíÌåSHENTI ºÜHEN ¸¸Ç×FUQIN ºÜHEN ÉíÌåSHENTI ºÜHEN AtrA / µÄDE CDe / ¸¸Ç×FUQIN 2) ÕâZHE (this) ¼þJIAN ÊÂSHI (thing) ÄãNI (you) ±ðBIE (don't) ÉúÆøSHENGQI ¡£ ¹ØÓÚGUANYU (about) ÕâZHE ¼þJIAN ÊÂSHI, ÄãNI ±ðBIE ÉúÆøSHENGQI (angry) ¡£ On this matter, don't get angry. ÉúÆø ÉúÆøSHENGQI TOP / SUB / \ AdvA CirA / SUB / \ AdvA ÊÂSHI ÄãNI ±ðBIE ¹ØÓÚGUANYU ÄãNI ±ðBIE LCN / \ CP ¼þJIAN ÊÂSHI LA / LCN / ÕâZHE ¼þJIAN LA / ÕâZHE Another typical example for syntactic role change is the change from indirect object to direct when the direct object is omitted, e.g. ËûTA (he) ¸øGEI (give) ÎÒWO (me: indirect) Ò»YI (one) ±¾BEN (?) ÊéSHU (book: direct) --> ËûTA ¸øGEI ÎÒWO (direct) ÁËLE. Such a change only concerns transformation in surface structure. Syntactic roles are determined by formal analysis to represent a sentence's surface structure while semantic roles are made out by syntactic/semantic analyses to represent deep structure which is considered common to all the languages. There is no simple correspondence between syntactic roles and the semantic ones. We'll not go into details in this formal syntax model on semantics. Topic is to be differentiated form preceding object whose axis is V1: µØDI (floor: OBJ) ÎÒWO (I) ɨSAO (V1: sweep) ÁËLE; I swept the floor. ¼¦JI (chicken: OBJ) ËûTA (he) ³ÔCHI (V1: eat) ÁËLE He ate the chicken. ËûTA (he: TOP) ѧϰXUEXI (study) ½ø²½JINBU (V0: progress) ¿ìKUAI (fast) . His study makes fast progress. / He makes fast progress in study. ( to be continued in the next file YF3.txt )