George III died in 1820. His son, George IV, succeeded him as king upon his death. However, George’s only child, a daughter, had died in 1817. When George died in 1830, his brother became king William IV. William had fathered 10 children, but all of them by his mistress. Therefore, Victoria was next in line to the throne upon William’s death in 1837.

Victoria met her future husband, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coleburg and Gotha at age 16. Prince Albert was Victoria’s first cousin, and the parents were none too happy about the marriage. However, the two married in 1840 and enjoyed a very happy and successful marriage.

Victoria was the last Hanoverian ruler of Britain. Since Hanover followed ancient Salic law, which did not recognize female rulers, Victoria’s uncle inherited rule of Hanover.

Victoria ruled from 1837 to 1901, a period of 63 years. During this time, Victoria opened the first World’s Fair in 1851; became the first British monarch to ride a train; and survived at least 7 assassination attempts.

Victoria’s husband Albert died in 1861. Victoria was crushed; she wore black for the rest of her life.

Meanwhile, Britain continued its measured pace of reform in the face of continental unrest. The latter half of the nineteenth century would witness one of Britain’s greatest political eras: The era of Disraeli and Gladstone.

Benjamin Disraeli, a member of the Conservative Party, became Prime Minister in 1868. Disraeli was the first — and so far, the only — Prime Minister of Britain who was of Jewish descent. (Disraeli had been baptized an Anglican early in life.) Disraeli became the Queen’s favorite Prime Minister.

Disraeli did not hold the office for long; his party lost the general election later that year. He was succeeded by William Gladstone of the Liberal Party. The Queen did not like Gladstone, saying, “He always addresses me as if I were a public meeting.”

Gladstone began a period of major political and social reform. Gladstone led Parliament in passing:
• the Secret Ballot Act of 1872;
• The Elementary Education Act of 1870, which made primary schooling available to all English and Welsh children from 5 to 13;
• the University Tests Act in 1871, which allowed Catholics, Jews, and non-believers to attend Oxford and Cambridge.

Gladstone also reformed the military and judiciary. Gladstone ended the patronage system in the civil service. He also gave workers the right to strike and legalized trade unions.

Disraeli re-gained his post from 1874-1880. Disraeli shifted the focus outward, buying the Suez Canal from the French in 1875. The Empire faced a crisis in 1871 when von Bismark created the German Empire. Victoria’s daughter, Vicky, was married to Frederick, the heir to the throne. Therefore, when Vicky became Empress of Germany, she would outrank her mother. Therefore, Disraeli passed the Royal Titles Bill of 1876, naming Queen Victoria “Empress of India.”

Disraeli also represented Britain at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 to support the Ottoman Empire against Russia. Russia and the Ottoman Empire had fought a war in 1877-78, with the Russians winning. Russia was poised to take control of the straits between Asia Minor and Europe and gain an outlet to the Mediterranean Sea.

Gladstone defeated Disraeli again in 1880. Disraeli died the next year. This time, Gladstone led Parliament in passing the Representation of the People Act 1884, which expanded the electorate to include all males who either owned property worth 10£ or rented property for more than 10£ a year. Gladstone also attempted to give Ireland home rule, but the issue split the Liberal Party.

Gladstone’s defeat in 1885 was not the end of his career. Gladstone went on to become Prime Minister again in 1886 and for the last time from 1892-94. With Gladstone’s resignation in 1894 over the Irish Home Rule Bill, one of the greatest era of British politics came to an end.

Victoria celebrated her Golden Jubilee in 1887. On 22 September 1896, Victoria passed George III as the longest reigning monarch in British history. For the first time since Albert died in 1861, Victoria wore a white dress for her Diamond Jubilee in 1897.

Victoria’s children married into nearly every royal house in Europe. Her oldest daughter, Vicky, was married to Frederick III, Emperor of Germany. Her son, the Prince of Wales, was married into the royal family of Denmark. Another son married the daughter of Tsar Alexander II of Russia. Governments were dismayed when Victoria discussed state secrets around the family table when the children visited.

Victoria died in 1901 at the age of 81. She was succeeded by her son, Edward VII. Due to his mother’s long reign, Edward reigned only 9 years to 1910. At his death, his son, George V, succeeded him as king.

Britain in the Twentieth Century

During this time, the British Parliament had remained a bicameral legislature: the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the unelected upper house that represented the aristocracy and the Church of England. In 1909, prime minister David Lloyd George sent a budget to the House of Lords that taxed the wealthy to pay for social programs; the Lords vetoed it. Lloyd George turned to the king, George V, who reluctantly agreed to entitle enough commoners to overwhelm the conservatives in the House of Lords. The conservatives backed down, and in the Parliament Act of 1911, the House of Lords lost its claim to power over the budget and the ability to veto legislation.