Population Growth

England:
1066: 3.5 million
1750: 6.5 million
1850: 17.5 million

Most European states experienced similar growth. French population grew from 21 million in 1700 to over 29 million in 1801, providing the manpower for Napoleon’s armies.

Thomas Malthus, 1798: An Essay on the Principle of Population: unchecked population growth grows at a geometric rate, while means of subsistence grows at an arithmetic rate. This essay began the population explosion myths.

Urbanization

British population in 1830 was greater than 50% urban. Liverpool was bigger in population than either Madrid and Moscow. Growth was duplicated in Europe in the 19th century.

Enclosure of common land in villages drove many people from villages to cities. Agricultural improvements meant fewer workers were needed in rural areas. Enclosures of lands led to healthier herds.

When industrialization came to Britain, a work force was in place because of population growth and urbanization.

Industrialization

Definition: manufactured goods replace agriculture as the dominant sector in the economy.

1770’s: James Watt developed the first effective steam engine. Steam engines were first used to pump water from mines, making coal less expensive. With coal now plentiful and cheap, steam engines spread into industries, such as metallurgy, mills, and transportation.

1783: first steamboat.
1804: first locomotive.

The British Isles contain great deposits of coal and iron ore. Steam engines eased the extraction of these resources. Great Britain dominated the Industrial Revolution.

Industrialization spread to the textile industry. First steam-powered loom was patented in 1785. Looms led to textile factories. First textile factory opened in Manchester in 1806; by mid-century, Great Britain had roughly 250,000 textile factories.

These factories needed cotton. Problem: Great Britain didn’t grow cotton; had to import it from other regions, including the U.S. South. (This will cause a problem during the Civil War.) By 1830, more than 50% of British foreign trade was spent on cotton; more than half the world’s cotton cloth came from Great Britain.

Transportation

Great Britain built miles of canals and rail lines in the early 19th century.

1706: Parliament authorized the construction of toll roads.

Richard Trevithick: 1804: built a locomotive that pulled 5 wagons, with 70 passengers and 10 tons of iron ore, 9.5 miles at 5 mph.

George Stephenson: built the first 2 rail lines in Britain. One line, from Manchester to the port of Liverpool, carried 445,500 passengers and 98,000 tons of goods in its first year.

Problems of Industrialization

Urbanization led to overcrowding; no fresh water or sanitation. Coal ash was everywhere, leading to massive air pollution. Fresh food was hard to find in cities.

Urbanization re-structured social classes. Class in cities was based on capital, not on land ownership. The new wealthy class in cities had different political interests than the landed nobility; joined with professional classes (doctors, lawyers, and professors) to challenge the landed aristocracy and bishops of the state churches for political power.

New work force: women and children joined men in factories and mines. Women composed the majority of textile laborers. Children worked everywhere: factories, mines, etc. In some cotton mills, 40% to 80% of the employees were under age 18.

British Parliament passed Factory Acts: the Factory Act of 1833 limited children age 13 to 18 to 69 hours/week and children 9 to 13 to 48 hours/week.

Industrialization led to great misery, but it also led to economic progress. People could afford more goods. Before the end of the 19th century, famine was drastically minimized.

Continental Industrialization

The Continent was hindered by the Napoleonic Wars and a postwar depression.

As governments demobilized hundreds of thousands of soldiers, unemployment soared.

War debt nearly destroyed the Continent. Governments cancelled contracts, leading to thousands of unemployed.

Governments cancelled war taxes, leading to high debt and the revenue to rebuild.

Railroads came in the 1803’s and 1840’s.

Prussia

Prussian military success from Frederick the Great’s time led to the annexation of massive coal-producing areas.

1807: Prussian government abolished serfdom, opened land ownership, and allowed the aristocracy to enter any occupation.

1820’s: Prussian government abolished internal tariffs, initiated free trade agreement with neighboring German states, and established a customs union.

Prussian emperor Frederick William IV loved railroads and encouraged them; the Austrian emperor despised railroads and fought their introduction.

Northern Europe — especially German states — specialized in heavy industry, while southern Europe specialized more in textiles.

Alfred Krupp pioneered steel ordnance, including cannon designs (1847). Within a generation, Prussia would use Krupp armaments to unite the German states into a united Germany.

1867: Frederich Engels and Karl Marx wrote Das Kapital.