The Fall of Constantinople in Historical Perspective

Hilton Kaufman
(Hinach ben Josef)


In 1453, the city of Constantinople fell. This short paper attempts to explore the background of this event and explain who was involved and what this meant. Names used often have variants and different systems to spell them in the Roman alphabet.

Who was involved and in what numbers? --


Constantinople had been part of the Christian Byzantine Empire under the leadership of Constantine XI.

The Ottoman Turks were carving out their own empire in the area under the leadership of Mohammed the Conqueror. Prior to this time, parts of Europe, such as Macedonia and Bulgaria had already come under Ottoman rule. The Serbs had been defeated at Kosovo. Ankara in what is now Central Turkey, was taken in 1354 and Thessalonica in Thrace was taken in 1387, lost and retaken in 1430.

At the time of the siege of Constantinople, the Byzantines were estimated to have had 7,000 to 10,000 troops and the Ottomans between 80,000 and 150,000. Since most reports of numbers during this period tend to be exagerated, the numbers could be smaller, even though this is not large by today's standards.

Where is Constantinople/Istanbul? --


 Istanbul straddles the Bosporus on both the Asia Minor or Anatolia side and the Eastern Thrace side. Thus the city is in both Asia and Europe. The Bosporus is a strait which connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara. At one time all trade between the Mediterranean and the Black sea had to pass through this straight. It was first bridged in 1953, although a sort of floating bridge was used much earlier. To reach the Mediterranean it is necessary to also go through the Dardenelles Strait and the Aegean Sea.

The Aegean Sea is a branch of the Mediterranean Sea, a bit East of the center of the Northern coast. Greece is East of the Aegean and Turkey is to the West.

Basically it is at a crossroads of trade between Europe and the Eastern World including the Holy Land Arabian trade routes. European traffic either comes through the Danube and several other major rivers valleys to the Black Sea or over land to the European side of Istanbul. Traffic to the East can either go over land through Turkey or by water through the Mediterranean.

While there are alternate routes, they may not be so good as going through Istanbul. Shipping can go through Venice or other Italian cities to ports along the Eastern Mediterranen, and it is possible to go over land through Russia during parts of the year.

What was the Byzantine Empire? --


 Centuries earlier, the Romans had established a second or Eastern capital at the city of Byzantium, which they later renamed Constantinople after the emperor who moved his capitol there from Rome. This became the much wealthier part of the Empire.

Eventually, the Western part of the Roman Empire fell, but the Eastern part remained in existence and came to be known as the Byzantine Empire. At its peak, the Eastern Roman Empire controlled territory which included the Holy Land, Egypt, much of coastal North Africa, the Balkans, and even a small part of Italy. By 1360, it had been forced out of Asia, except for Constantinople and possibly some immediate surrounding territory, and only controlled a small area in the Southeast part of Europe.

The Byzantine people considered themselves to be Romans. who just happened to use the Greek language rather than Latin. The capital of the Empire had simply moved from Rome to Constantinople in their view.

From 1204 to 1261, Constantinople was under the control of Latin Crusaders who formed a Western European feudal style monarchy. During this time the Latins tried to force Roman Catholic religious practices on the Greek population which they ruled. Other parts of the Byzantine Empire, were ruled as separate empires. In 1261, the Nicean emperor, Michael VIII, of the house of Palaeologus, was able to recapture Constantinople and bring the Byzantine Empire back together.

What was the role of the Christian Church? --


 The fallen Roman Empire had two successors. One was the Byzantine Empire. The other was the Christian Church, lead by the Roman Pope.

The Greek speaking Byzantines were under the religious leadership of the Patriarch of Constantinople, who was appointed by the Emperor and could be removed at his will.

The two churches split over a technical matter of Church doctrine related to the Procession of the Holy Spirit; although their were other issues, such as the language and ritual to be used in religious services. Each Church mutually excommunicated each other in 1054, with this status in force until 1965. Each could then consider the followers of the other as schismatic and outside the protection of the Church.

By 1453, the Greek Orthodox Church excercized religious leadership over many peoples who were not part of the Byzantine Empire, with churches using the Byzantine ritual in the language spoken by local people. The Byzantine people wanted nothing to do with Roman religious ideas and practices, such as an unfamiliar Latin mass, and were loyal to their clergy and Church.

Emperor Constantine, on the other hand was trying to form an alliance with the Papacy so as to gain allies against the Turks. The Orthodox Church and the people would have none of that. Better that Constantinople should fall than be forced to follow the ways of the Papists. When this was attempted by earlier emperors, a slogan, “Better the Sultan’s turban than the Cardinal’s hat,” was typical of the sentiment of ordinary people.

The Pope did send some arms and food even though there were religious differences.

For what its worth, The position and independence of the Patriarch of Constantinople improved under Turkish rule. In fact the office had been left vacant for a number of years under the last Byzantine Emperor.

Who were the Ottoman Turks? --


 A number of different peoples came out of Central Asia toward Europe. Some were pushed West by others. One such people were the Turks, who were being pushed by the Mongols. They apparently adopted Islam as their religion at an early date.

A large body of Turkish people eventually settled in Anatolia or Asia Minor. This is roughly the Asian part of modern Turkey. The Seljuk Turks provided leadership until June 26, 1243 when they were defeated by the Byzantine forces at Köse Dagi. This leadership then fragmented into numerous petty mini-states.

In 1301, a local chieftain, Osman, the son of Ertugrul, declared himself Sultan and founded the Ottoman Empire, which eventually stretched from Morocco in the west to Iran in the east, and from the Yemen in the south to the Crimea in the north. While the Seljuk Turks did control some territory in roughly Eastern Turkey, leadership passed to the Ottomans who controlled the more prosperous Western area.

The Ottoman capitol prior to the capture of Constantinople was at Andrianpole (modern Edirne), which is in Thrace, on the modern border of Turkey and Greece a little south of Bulgaria. While most of their territory was in Asia, the Capitol was in Europe.

The Ottoman Turks were the people who captured Constantinople in 1453 and then went on to capture much of Eastern Europe and North Africa.

Why was there only limited assistance from secular Europe? --


 The Hundred Years War was going on between France and England. Because of the Treaty of Troyes in 1420, the French throne was to pass to an English ruler. In practice, a regent for Henry VI of England ruled in the North and Charles VII in the South of France. Joan of Arc broke the siege of Orleans in one of the major battles.

The Duke of Burgundy also got involved and at one point changed sides from the English to the French. The French defeated the English on July 17, 1453, a couple months after the fall of Constantinople.

Spain was fighting Moslems in its own territory and was in no position to take the fight elsewhere. Castile had only captured Cordova and Seville a few years earlier. Moslems controlled Granada, in the South of Spain, until 1492.

German and Italian areas were mostly a bunch of small states, often feuding among themselves. The Holy Roman Emperor was little more than a figurehead with more important local interests. At this time, Frederick III, of the House of Hapsburg was on the Imperial throne. Some historians consider him to be a poor leader who even ignored the attacks of the Turks on the borders of traditional Hapsburg territory in Austria.

About this time, many of the German states were expelling their non-Christian populations, which was mostly Jewish. They were satisfied to fight infidels on their home turf rather than venturing out to where they were more numerous.

Hungary had just barely fought off the Turks a few years before. Much of Eastern Europe had already been conquered by the Ottomans or had an uneasy peace. They were not going to get involved if they could avoid it, with many considering the defense of Constantinople a lost cause.

Venice did send a few ships, which never reached Constantinople, after the siege was already under way. About 2,000 foreign men, largely from Greek and Italian states, were at Constantinople at the time and did help with the defense.

Who were some of the significant Individuals? --


 Constantine XI, Emperor of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire in 1453. Also spelled and pronounced Constantinos. He was of the house of Palaeologus, which overthew the Latin rulership of the Empire a couple hundred years earlier. He had been crowned in Mistra and then moved to Constantinople.

Mohammed II, the Conqueror, leader of the Turks as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1451-81). The Turkish pronounciation of the name is somewhat closer to Mahmet and is sometimes spelled Mehmet. He lead the Turkish forces which captured Constantinople in 1453.

Osman, the son of Ertugrul, founded the Ottoman Empire in 1301 and was its first sultan. He had been one of many local Turkish chieftans.

Nicholas V, Pope from 1447 to 1455.

Originally Tomaso Parentucelli.

Promoted Renaaissace Art. Founded the Vatican Library. Arranged for copying of Greek manuscripts into Latin. The last antipope, Felix V resigned during this reign. He crowned Frederick III in St. Peter’s Basilica, after which no later Holy Roman Emperor was crowned there.

Frederick III, of the House of Hapsburg was the Holy Roman Emperor (1440-93). The home territory of the Hapsburgs was largely Austria.

Because of a deal which he made with Pope Eugene IV to secure the Imperial throne in return for guaranteeing the fidelity of the Germans to Rome, he sacrificied the liberty of the German Church, which had been secured earlier, thus incurring the disfavor of the German princes. He ignored revolts in Austria and Hungary in 1451. He did not attend sessions of the imperial diets. He lost his authority in Switzerland in 1448. His brother Albert was the ruler of Lower Austria and barred him from there for several years.

Charles VII, King of France. During much of his reign he had to fight the English for the throne of France.

Henry VI, King of England (and maybe France). He came to the Throne as an infant and was insane much of the time. The House of York was questioning his right to the English Throne.

Urban, an Hungarian engineer who designed the large caliber canons, powerful enough to smash the masonry walls of the city, which the Turks used. The Byzantines could not afford his services and chose not to hire him when they had the chance.

Giovanni Guiustiniani Longo commanded commanded foreign forces, mostly Greek and Italian, in Constantinople. When he was injured and left with forces from Genoa, the opening which finally allowed the Turks to take the city was provided.

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Updated: October 5, 2003