[630]Sections of this chapter dealing with the liberal idea of class and exploitation were given as a paper at the Carl Menger Society, Oxford Meeting, 26-28 April, 1985.
[631]The historian Edgard Allix curiously claims that Comte soon lost his seat as a result of his "independence" but was able to find another seat again very quickly. Unfortunately Allix does not elaborate any further. Edgard Allix, "La déformation de l'économie politique libérale après J.-B. Say: Charles Dunoyer," Revue d'historie des doctrines économiques et sociales, 1911, vol. 4, p. 9-10, fn 3. Allix describes Comte's political career, beginning with the nomination as councillor of the Seine prefecture, as follows: "Il n'occupa d'ailleurs point ce poste et fut nommé quelques jours après (28 7bre 1830) procureur du roi. Destitué pour son indépendance en 1831, il fut élu député de Mamers en 1831 et 1834 et siégea au parlement dans les rangs de l'opposition dynastique."
[632]Charles Comte, Traité de la propriété, pp. vi-vii.
[633]Charles Comte, Traité de la propriété p. xiv.
[634]Charles Comte, Traité de la propriété pp. xv-xxii.
[635]Charles Comte, Traité de la propriété p. xix.
[636]Charles Comte, Traité de la propriété p. xx.
[637]Siedentop, "The Two Liberal Traditions," p. 157.
[638]J.B. Say, Catéchisme d'économie politique... Revue et augmentée de notes et d'une préface par M. C. Comte (Paris, 1834). J.B. Say, Cours complet d'économie politique pratique, edited with a life of the author by C. Comte (1837). Bruxelles edition, Société typographique belge, 1844. J.B. Say, Oeuvres diverses contenant: Catéchisme d'économie politique, fragments et opuscules inédits, correspondance générale, Olbie, Petit Volume, Mélanges de morale et de litérature' précédées d'une Notice historique sur la vie et les travaux de l'auteur, Avec des notes par Ch. Comte, E. Daire et Horace Say (Paris: Guillaumin, 1848). Charles Comte, "Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de J.-B. Say," in Mélanges et correspondance d'économie politique, ouvrage posthume de J.-B. Say (Paris: Chamerot, 1833), pp. i-xxviii. He also wrote a review of Say's Cours complet for the Revue encyclopédique, "Cours de Say."
[639]Charles Comte, Notice historique sur la vie et les travaux de M. Thomas Robert Malthus (Académie des sciences morales et politiques. Recueil des lectures... du mercredi 28 décembre 1836). Another edition 1845. Reprinted in Malthus, Essai sur le principe de population, in Collection des principaux économistes, vol. 7 (Paris, 1852, 2e edition).
[640]Charles Dunoyer, Mémoire à consulter sur quelques-unes des principales questions que la Révolution de juillet a fait naître (Paris: Delaunay, 1835), Signed Ch. Dunoyer, 10 May 1834), p. 39, quoted in Allix, p. 7.
[641]Charles Dunoyer, La Révolution du 24 Février (Paris: Guillaumin, 1849 and Bruxelles, Méline, Cans et Cie, 1849), "Preface", p. ix, possibly written June 1849. Another statement by Dunoyer giving reasons for his refusal to pay taxes is: "Ayant fait en maintes occasions, et deux fois notamment aux élections dernières, serment de fidélité au roi et d'obéissance à la charte constitutionelle et aux lois du royaume, je jure sur ma vie de ne payer aucune contribution jusqu'à ce que j'aie vue rapporter les ordonnances subversives de nos lois les plus fondamentales et violemment attentatoires à l'honneur du roi et à la sûreté du trône," quoted in Mignet, "Dunoyer," Journal des économistes, p. 174. A more extended analysis of the revolution of 1830 appeared in 1835 when Dunoyer was a prefect under the new régime and able to devote time to reflection on his rôle and the implications of the revolution for French politics. Charles Dunoyer, Mémoire à consulter sur quelques-unes des principales questions que la Révolution de juillet a fait naître (Paris: Delaunay, 1835. Signed Ch. Dunoyer, 10 May, 1834).
[642]When he was prefect of the Somme Dunoyer was an outspoken advocate of birth control on the twin grounds of individual liberty and Malthusian population theory. For this he was attacked by the Church and the Parisian press. Dunoyer felt obliged to respond to his critics with a pamphlet published in 1835 but I have not been able to find a copy of this.
[643]A position he did not hold long because of the opposition (presumably political) of his subordinates. In typical fashion Dunoyer felt obliged to defend himself in print with Charles Dunoyer, La Bibliothèque du roi (Paris: H. Fournier et Cie, 1839). Second revised edition 1847, La Bibliothèque du roi, note publié en 1839 par M. Ch. Dunoyer, nommé administrateur général par l'ordonnance royale du 22 février, démissionnaire le 29 juin, Nouvelle édition (Paris: Lacrampe fils, 1847).
[644]He was active in the Academy for nearly forty years until shortly before his death, and debated and wrote on such issues as economic theory, the "social question," and the challenge of socialism. One of his first economic works in this period dealt with the very different ways in which British and French railways were funded and constructed - one essentially privately, the other publicly. Charles Dunoyer, Esprit et méthodes comparés de l'Angleterre et de la France dans les entreprises des travaux publics et en particulier des chemins de fer; conséquences pratiques tirées pour notre pays de ce rapprochement (Paris: Carilian-Goeury et Dalment, 1840). Dunoyer's essay is reprinted in volume 3 of his Oeuvres edited by his son Anatole. Oeuvres de Charles Dunoyer. Revue sur les manuscrits de l'auteur, ed. Anatole Dunoyer (Paris: Guillaumin, 1879), Notices d'économie sociale, pp. 305-364.
[645]The Society of Political Economy was modelled on the British Political Economy Club founded by James Mill and other leading liberals.
[646]Some of these articles were republished by his son Anatole in the Oeuvres, the volume entitled Notices d'économie sociale, although it is far from being a collected works. A better idea of Dunoyer's considerable output on economic matters can be had by viewing the entry under his name in the index to the Journal des Économistes. See the Table alphabéthique générale des matières contenues dans les deux premières séries (Années 1841-1865) du Journal des Économistes (décembre 1841 à décembre 1865 inclusivement, pp. 71-72.
[647]He expressed the reasons for his opposition in La Révolution du 24 février which appeared in 1849.
[648]Dunoyer, Le Second Empire et une nouvelle restauration 2 vols (London: Tafery, 1864), ed. by his son Anatole Dunoyer. Second edition 1871. It was published after being completed by his son Anatole who also edited his father's complete works in 1870.
[649]Edgar Allix, "La Déformation de l'économie politique libérale après J.-B. Say: Charles Dunoyer," Revue d'histoire des doctrines économique et sociales, 1911, vol. 4, p. 2.
[650]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 90, footnote.
[651]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 105.
[652]Thomas Buckle, History of Civilisation in England (London: Grant Richards, 1904).
[653]W.E.H. Lecky, History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1910).
[654]Herbert Spencer, The Principles of Sociology (London, 1893).
[655]Gustave de Molinari, L'Évolution politique et la Révolution (Paris: C. Reinwald, 1884).
[656]Vilfredo Pareto, The Rise and Fall of the Élites (Totowa, N.J.: Bedminster Press, 1968).
[657]Gaetano Mosca, The Ruling Class (New York and London: McGraw, 1939).
[658]Franz Oppenheimer, Der System der Soziologie (Jena: Fischer, 1922).
[659]Max Weber, Economy and Society (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968).
[660]Comte, Traité de législation, p. 496 and "Considérations sur l'état moral de la nation française," Le Censeur européen, vol. 1, 1817.
[661]Thierry, "Vues des révolutions Angleterre," in Le Censeur européen, vols. IV-XI, 1817; Histoire de la conquête de l'Angleterre par les Normands (Paris, 1825).
[662]Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man, ed. Henry Collins (Penguin, 1969).
[663]In The Writings of Thomas Paine, ed. M. D. Conway and C. Putnam (New York, 1906), vol. 3.
[664]Eric Foner, Tom Paine and Revolutionary America (Oxford University Press, 1976), p. 96.
[665]Noel W. Thompson, The People's Science: The Popular Political Economy of Exploitation and Crisis 1816-34 (Cambridge University Press, 1984).
[666]Gorgon. Volumes 1-2. 1818-1819 (New York: Greenwood Reprint Corporation, 1969), p. 90.
[667]James Mill, "The State of the Nation," London Review, 1 (April 1835), quoted in Joseph Hamburger, Intellectuals in Politics: John Stuart Mill and the Philosophic Radicals (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), p. 44.
[668]John Stuart Mill, Collected Works, vol. 6, ed. John M. Robson (University of Toronto Press, 1982), p. 470.
[669]J.S. Mill, "Guizot's Essays and Lectures on History," in John Stuart Mill, Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, volume XX: Essays on French History and Historians, ed. John M. Robson, introduction by John C. Cairns (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1985), pp. 257-94 and "De Tocqueville on Democracy in America" parts one and two in Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, volume XVIII: Essays on Politics and Society, ed. J. M. Robson (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1977), pp. 47-90, 153-211. See also Iris Wessel Mueller, John Stuart Mill and French Thought (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1956) and Richard K. P. Pankhurst, The Saint-Simonians, Mill and Carlyle: A Preface to Modern Thought (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1957).
[670]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 106.
[671]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 107.
[672]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 108.
[673]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 109.
[674]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 109.
[675]Gustave de Molinari, L'Évolution économique de dix-neuvième siècle. Théorie du progrès (Paris: C. Reinwald, 1880).
[676]Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology, ed. Stanislav Andreski (Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1969).
[677]On Proudhon see: Pierre Haubtmann, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: Sa vie et sa pensée (Paris: Beauchesne, 1982) and Robert L. Hoffman, Revolutionary Justice: The Social and Political Thought of P.-J. Proudhon (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972).
[678]On the importance of lawyers in the theoretical debate on property see Donald R. Kelley and Bonnie G. Smith, "What was Property? Legal Dimensions of the Social Question in France (1789-1848)."
[679]Two of the very few historians to acknowledge Comte as the focus of much of Proudhon's attack is Donald R. Kelley and Bonnie G. Smith, "What was Property? Legal Dimensions of the Social Question in France (1789-1848)," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1984, vol. 128, no. 3, pp. 210, 216. Proudhon, Qu'est-ce que la propriété?, ed. Emile James (Paris: Garnier-Flammarion, 1966), p. 147.
[680]Proudhon's memoirs can be found in the Oeuvres complètes de P.-J. Proudhon. Nouvelle édition publiée avec les notes et les documents inédits sous la direction de MM. C. Bouglé et H. Moysset (Paris: Macel Ravière, 1926).
[681]Léon Faucher, "Propriété," Dictionnaire de l'économie politique, ed. Charles Coquelin and Guillaumin (Paris: Guillaumin, 1853), vol. 2, pp. 460-473.
[682]Proudhon's criticism of Charles Comte's views on wage labour is contained in Section 5, "Que le travail conduit à l'égalité des propriétés" of Chapter III of Qu'est-ce que la propriété?, ed. Emile James (Paris: Garnier-Flammarion, 1966), pp. 150-58.
[683]Women of course were to play no role in the economy, according to Proudhon, other than as wives or prostitutes. Hence all labourers to Proudhon are or course male.
[685]"The capitalist is said to pay the daily wages of the workers. To be more exact one should say the capitalist pays a multiple of the daily rate according to the number of workers he has, which is not at all the same thing. He has not paid for the immense force which is the result of the union and the harmony of the workers and of the convergence and simultaneous nature of their efforts. Two hundred grenadiers placed the obelisque of Luxor on its base in a few hours. Can one suppose that a single man could raise it in two hundred days? However, according to the capitalist the total wages paid would be the same. Indeed, cultivating a desert, building a house, running a factory - it is the same as raising the obelisque, like moving a mountain. The smallest fortune, the tiniest workshop, the establishment of the meanest industry demand a coming together of such a diverse array of labour and talents that a single man would never manage it. It is surprising that the economists have not noticed this. Let us therefore balance out what the capitalist has received with what he has paid." Propriété, pp. 154-55.
[686].".. Is the market just? Once again, (I say) no. When you have paid for all the individual forces you have not paid for the collective force. There always remains a right of collective property which you have not acquired and which you enjoy unjustly." In Propriété, p. 157.
[688]Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Selected Correspondence (Moscow, 1965), pp. 67.
[689]Plekhanov, "The Development of the Monist View of History," in Selected Philosophical Works (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1961) vol. 1.
[690]Quoted in Shirley M. Gruner, "Historiography," p. 312.
[691]Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1976), p. 471.
[692]Marx and Engels, The German Ideology, p. 72.
[693]Marx and Engels, The German Ideology, p. 326.
[694]Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, volume one, trans. Ben Fowkes (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976). Chap 31 "The Genesis of the Industrial Capitalist," p. 916.
[695]Marx, Capital, volume one, pp. 915-16.
[696]Marx, Capital, volume one, pp. 916, footnote 4.
[697]Marx, Capital, volume one, pp. 915. Thomas Hodgskin, The Natural and Artificial Right of Property Contrasted (1832), p. 99.
[698]Marx, Capital, volume one, pp. 915.
[699]Thomas Hodgskin, The Natural and Artificial Right of Property Contrasted (1832), p. 94.
[700]Thomas Hodgskin, The Natural and Artificial Right of Property Contrasted (1832), p. 97.
[701]Thomas Hodgskin, The Natural and Artificial Right of Property Contrasted (1832), p. 98.
[702]Thomas Hodgskin, The Natural and Artificial Right of Property Contrasted (1832), p. 97-8.
[703]Thomas Hodgskin, The Natural and Artificial Right of Property Contrasted (1832), p. 101.
[704]Thomas Hodgskin, The Natural and Artificial Right of Property Contrasted (1832), p. 104.
[705]Norman Levine, "The German Historical School of Law and the Origins of Historical Materialism," Journal of the History of Ideas, 1987, vol. XLVIII, no. 3, pp. 431-51.