[250]Charles Dunoyer, Lettre à un électeur de département... (Paris: A. Corréard, 1822). Second edition in 1822. Charles Dunoyer, Du droit de pétition à l'occasion des élections (Paris: Chez les marchants des nouveautés, 1824).
[251]Charles Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale considérées dans leurs rapports avec la liberté,(Paris: A. Sautelet, 1825). The title gives little indication of the contents of the book which began with some chapters on the nature of liberty and its relationship with race and culture before dealing with the twin issue of the evolution of different modes of production and the nature of class in each of the main economic stages. Dunoyer realised the book was only a preliminary statement on the question of class and economic evolution as he promised to devote a separate volume to the nature of a purely industrial society of the future. Dunoyer successively expanded his work over the next twenty years, reworking the basic theme and treating the various historical stages in greater detail. Charles Dunoyer, Nouveau traité d'économie sociale, ou simple exposition des causes sous l'influence desquelles les hommes parviennent à user de leurs forces avec le plus de LIBERTÉ, c'est-à-dire avec le plus FACILITÉ et de PUISSANCE (Paris: Sautelet, 1830) 2 vols; and De la liberté du travail (Paris: 1845). I have used the edition published by his son in 1886, Oeuvres de Charles Dunoyer (Paris: Guillaumin, 1886) 3 vols. Volumes one and two contain De la liberté du travail.
[252]Leonard Liggio, "Charles Dunoyer and French Classical Liberalism," Journal of Libertarian Studies, 1977, vol. 1, no. 3, p. 164. On the propagation of liberal political economy in France at this time see Lucette Le Van-Lemesle, "La promotion de l'économie politique en France au XIXe siècle jusqu'à son introduction dans le facultés (1815-1881)," Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, 27 April 1980, pp. 270-94 and Alain Alcouffe, "The Institutionalization of Political Economy in French Universities: 1819-1896," History of Political Economy, Summer 1989, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 313-44.
[253]For some stimulating comments on the source of Comte and Dunoyer's theory of industrialism and liberal class theory in general see Leonard P. Liggio, "Charles Dunoyer and French Classical Liberalism," Journal of Libertarian Studies,, 1977, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 153-78.
[254]Franck Alengry, Condorcet: Guide de la Révolution Française. Théoricien du Droit constitutionel et Précurseur de la Science sociale (Paris: V. Giard et E. Brière, 1904), pp. 372-76. On Condorcet see Keith Michael Baker, Condorcet: From Natural Philosophy to Social Mathematics (University of Chicago Press, 1975); Rolf Reichardt, Reform und Revolution bei Condorcet: Ein Beitrag zur späten Aufklärung in Frankreich (Bonn: Ludwig Röhrscheid, 1973); Léon Cahen, Condorcet et la Révolution Française (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1904).
[255]Charles Comte, Traité de législation, (Bruxelles: Hauman, Cattoir et comp., 2nd ed. 1837), book 1, chapter 14, pp. 59-65.
[256]On the Grotian tradition of natural law see Peter Stein, Legal Evolution: The Story of an Idea (Cambridge University Press, 1980); Richard Tuck, Natural Rights Theories: Their Origin and Development (Cambridge University Press, 1979); Franco Venturi, Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment (Cambridge University Press, 1971); The Politics of Johannes Althusius (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1964), trans. Frederick S. Carney; John Neville Figgis, Political Thought from Gerson to Grotius (Cambridge University Press, 1956); and Otto Gierke, The Development of Political Theory (New York: Bernard Freyd, 1939).
[257]See Istvan Hont, "The Language of Sociability and Commerce: Samuel Pufendorf and the Theoretical Foundations of the `Four Stages Theory'," in The Languages of Political Theory in Early-Modern Europe, ed. Anthony Pagden (Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 253-76 for the important contribution of Pufendorf to the development of stage theories of history.
[258]François Quesnay et la Physiocratie, 2 vols (Paris: Institut national d'études démographiques, 1958); Gustave Schelle, "Physiocrates," in Nouveau dictionnaire d'économie politique, ed. Léon Say and Joseph Cailley, 2 volumes (Paris, 1891-92), pp. 476-86; Gustave Schelle, Du Pont de Nemours et l'école physiocrate (Paris, 1888); Elisabeth Fox-Genovese, The Origins of Physiocracy: Economic Revolution and Social Order in Eighteenth Century France (Cornell University Press, 1976); and the series of volumes by Georges Weulersse, Le mouvement physiocratique en France de 1756 à 1770 (Paris, 1910); La Physiocratie à la fin du règne de Louis XV, 1770-1774 (Paris: 1959); La Physiocratie sous les ministère de Turgot et de Necker, 1774-1781 (Paris, 1950); and La Physiocratie à l'aube de la Révolution, 1781-1792, ed. Corinne Beutler (Paris: Éditions de l'école des hautes études en sciences sociales, 1985).
[259]Dunoyer, "Esquisse," Revue encyclopédique, p. 369.
[260]See Letrosne's Dissertation sur la féodalité published with De l'Administration provinciale, et de la réforme de l'impôt (Paris: Duplain, 1779) and Linguet's Théorie des lois civiles, ou principes fondamentaux de la société (London: 1767) discussed in J.Q.C. Mackrell, The Attack on 'Feudalism' in Eighteenth-Century France (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973), pp. 35-6.
[261]G. Schelle, "Gournay," and "Turgot" in Nouveau dictionnaire, op cit., pp. 1105-8, 1122-35; G. Schelle, Vincent de Gournay (Paris, 1897); G. Schelle, Turgot (Paris, 1909). On Turgot, Steven L. Kaplan, Bread, Politics and Political Economy in the Reign of Louis XV (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976).
[262]On the intellectual history of the four-stage theory see Ronald L. Meek, Social Science and the Ignoble Savage (Cambridge University Press, 1976).
[263]Oeuvres de Turgot, nouvelle édition classée par ordre de matières avec les notes de Dupont de Nemours, augmentée de lettres inédites, des questions sur le commerce, et d'observations et de notes nouvelles par MM. Eugène Daire et Hyppolyte Dussard et précédée d'une notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Turgot par M. Eugène Daire, 2 vols (Paris: Guillaumin, 1844); Physiocrates. Quesnay, Dupont de Nemours, Mercier de la Rivière, l'Abbé Baudeau, Le Trosne, avec une introduction sur la doctrine des physiocrates, des commentaires et des notices historiques, par M. Eugène Daire (Paris: Guillaumin, 1846).
[264]On the sociology of the Scottish Enlightenment see, R. Meek, "The Scottish Contribution to Marxist Sociology," in Economics, Ideology and Other Essays (London, 1967); W. C. Lehmann, Adam Ferguson and the Beginnings of Modern Sociology (New York, 1930); A. Swingewood, "Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment," British Journal of Sociology, 21, 1970, pp. 64-80; W. C. Lehmann, John Millar of Glasgow, 1735,1801, his life and thought, and his contribution to sociological analysis (Cambridge, 1960); D. Reisman, Adam Smith's Sociological Economics (London, 1976); A. Skinner, "Economics and History: The Scottish Enlightenment," Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 12, 1965, pp. 1-22; Donald Winch, Adam Smith's Politics: An Essay in Historiographic revision (Cambridge University Press, 1979); Wealth and Virtue: The Shaping of Political Economy in the Scottish Enlightenment, ed. Istvan Hont and Michael Ignatieff (Cambridge University Press, 1983).
[265]Stephen Holmes notes the influence of these four Scottish thinkers on Constant in the Chapter "A Liberal Theory of Progress" in Benjamin Constant and the Making of Modern Liberalism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), p. 183.
[266]Michèle Duchet, Anthropologie et histoire au siècle des lumières: Buffon, Voltaire, Rousseau, Helvétius, Diderot (Paris: Flammarion, 1977); Yves Benot, Diderot: De l'athéisme à l'anticolonialisme (Paris: François Maspero, 1981); G. Th. Raynal, Histoire philosophique et politique des Deux Indes , ed. Yves Benot (Paris: François Maspero, 1981); Condorcet, Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain, ed. O.H. Prior (Paris: Boivin, 1933).
[267]Power, Property, and History: Barnarve's Introduction to the French Revolution and Other Writings, ed. Emanuel Chill (New York: Harper and Row, 1971); Jean-Jacques Chevallier, Barnarve ou les deux faces de la Révolution (Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 1979); Emmanuel Sieyes, Qu'est-ce que le Tiers état?, ed. Roberto Zapperi (Genève: Droz, 1970).
[268]Keith Michael Baker, "The Esquisse: History and Social Science" in Condorcet: From Natural Philosophy to Social Mathematics, p. 349.
[269]Baker, Condorcet, p. 348.
[270]Baker, Condorcet, p. 359.
[271]Baker, Condorcet, p. 363.
[272]Cheryl B. Welch, Liberty and Utility: The French Idéologues and the Transformation of Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), p. 157.
[273]Welch, Liberty and Utility, p. 157.
[274]See also Emmet Kennedy, A Philosophe in the Age of Revolution: Destutt de Tracy and the Origins of "Ideology" (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1978), p. 272.
[275]Welch, Liberty and Utility, p. 157.
[276]Welch, Liberty and Utility, p. 158.
[277]Charles Dunoyer, "Esquisse des doctrines auxquelles on a donné le nom d'industrialisme, c'est-à-dire, des doctrines qui fondent la société sur l'industrie," Revue encyclopédique, février 1827, vol. 33, pp. 368-94. In addition to the works of Say already mentioned, Dunoyer refers directly to François Montlosier, De la Monarchie française depuis son établissement jusqu'à nos jours (Paris, 1814); Benjamin Constant, "De l'ésprit de conquête et de l'usurpation" (1814) in De la liberté chez les modernes: Écrits politiques, ed. Marcel Gauchet (Paris: Livre de poche, 1980). Dunoyer described the years from 1814 to 1817 when Say, Montlosier, and Constant's works appeared as "l'époque où paraissaient ces précieuses productions." Dunoyer, "Esquisse," Revue encyclopédique, p. 372.
278Augustin Thierry, "Des nations et de leurs rapports mutuels; ce que ces rapports ont été aux diverse époques de la civilisation; ce qu'ils sont aujourd'hui, et quels principes de conduite en dérivent," Seconde partie: Politique, vol. 1, pp. 19-127 of Saint-Simon's L'Industrie ou discussions politiques, morales et philosophiques dans l'intérêt de tous les hommes livrés à des travaux utiles et indépendants (Mai, 1817), reprinted in Oeuvres de Claude-Henri de Saint-Simon (Paris: Editions anthropos, 1966), vol. 1.
[279] On Roederer see Pierre-Louis Roederer, "Mémoires sur quelques points d'économie politique," in Oeuvres du Comte P.-L. Roederer, ed. A.-M. Roederer (Paris, 1859); Michael James, "Pierre-Louis Roederer, Jean-Baptiste Say, and the concept of industrie," History of Political Economy, 1977, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 455-75; Edgar Allix, "La rivalité entre la propriété foncière et la fortune mobilière sous la Révolution," Revue d'histoire économique et sociale, 6, 1913.
[280]On Thierry see Robert Fossaert, "La théorie des classes chez Guizot et Thierry," La Pensée, January-February 1955, no. 59, pp. 59-69; Dietrich Gerhard, "Guizot, Augustin Thierry und die Rolle des Tiers État in der französische Geschichte," Historische Zeitschrift, 1960, pp. 290-310; Ephraïm Harpaz, "Sur un écrit de jeunesse d'Augustin Thierry," Revue littéraire de la France, 1959, no. 59, pp. 342-64; Stanley Mellon, The Political Uses of History: A Study of Historians in the French Restoration (Stanford University Press, 1958); Charles Rearick, "Thierry's New History," Beyond the Enlightenment: Historians and Folklore in Nineteenth Century France (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1974); Kieran Joseph Carroll, Some Aspects of the Historical Thought of Augustin Thierry (1795-1856) (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1951); Rulon Nephi Smithson, Augustin Thierry: Social and Political Consciousness in the Evolution of a Historical Method (Genève: Droz, 1972), in particular on Thierry's relationship with Comte and Dunoyer see chapter 3 "With the Censeur Européen (1817-1819)," pp. 51-62 and chapter 4 "With the Censeur Européen Daily (1819-1820)," pp. 63-75. Most of Thierry's articles which were first published in Le Censeur européen between 1817-1820 were later republished in Augustin Thierry, Dix ans d'études historique (Paris: Just Tessier, 1842, first published 1835), a full list of Thierry's articles in Comte and Dunoyer's journal can be found on pp. 308-9 of Smithson; his other major works are Essai sur l'histoire de la formation et des progrès du Tiers État (Paris: Furne, 1853); Histoire de la Conquête de l'Angleterre par les Normands (Paris: Didot, 1825); Lettres sur l'histoire de France (Paris: Sautelet, 1827). Thierry's important articles in Comte and Dunoyer's journal include Augustin Thierry, "Vues des révolutions Angleterre," in Le Censeur européen, vols. IV-XI, 1817; and "Des nations et de leurs rapports mutuels: ce que ces rapports ont été aux diverses époques de la civilisation; ce qu'ils sont; quels principes de conduites en dérivent," Le Censeur européen, 1817, vol. 2, pp. 222-245.
[281]Ephraïm Harpaz, "Le Censeur européen: Histoire d'un journal industrialiste," Revue d'histoire économique et sociale, 37, 1959, pp. 185-218.
[282]Dunoyer, "Esquisse," Revue encyclopédique, p. 374.
[283]Dunoyer, "Esquisse," Revue encyclopédique, p. 375.
[284]The earliest attempt at a "industrial" interpretation of history was presented in articles in Le Censeur européen. See Comte, "Considérations sur l'état moral de la nation française, et sur les causes de l'instabilté de ses institutions," Le censeur européen, 1817, vol. 1, pp. 1-92; and "De l'organisation sociale considérée dans ses rapports avec les moyens de subsistance des peuples," Le Censeur européen, 1817, vol. 2, pp. 1-66; and Dunoyer, "Considérations sur l'état présent de l'Europe, sur les dangers de cet état, et sur les moyens d'en sortir," Le censeur européen, 1817, vol. 2, pp. 67-106. The differences between these essays and the theory of industrialism which emerged in Dunoyer's 1825 book L'industrie et la morale would make an interesting study.
[285]Charles Comte, "De l'organisation sociale considérée dans ses rapports avec les moyens de subsistance des peuples," Le Censeur européen, 1817, vol. 2, pp. 1-66. It is not too difficult to see the first part of Comte's magnum opus, the Traité de législation ou exposition des lois générales suivant lesquelles les peuples prospèrent, dépérissent, ou restent stationnaires (Paris, 1827) as an elaboration of this early essay.
[286]On the history of this conception of development see Ronald L. Meek, Social Science and the Ignoble Savage (Cambridge University Press, 1976).
[287]Comte, "De l'organisation sociale," p. 24-25.
[288]On Augustin Thierry, Essai sur l'histoire de la formation et des progrès du Tiers État (Paris: Furne, 1853); Histoire de la Conquête de l'Angleterre par les Normands (Paris: Didot, 1925; and Dix Ans d'études historiques (Paris: Tessier, 1835). François Guizot, Histoire de la révolution d'Angleterre, depuis l'avènement de Charles Ie jusqu'à la restauration de Charles II (1826); Histoire des origines du gouvernement représentatif en Europe (1851); and Histoire de la civilisation en Europe depuis la chute de l'Empire romain jusqu'à la Révolution française (Paris: Hachette, 1985). Alexis de Tocqueville also used some aspects of this economic and class analysis in his history of the Ancien Régime which may also be described as an analysis of the state before and after the Revolution. Alexis de Tocqueville, L'ancien régime et la révolution, ed. J.-P. Mayer (Paris: Gallimard, 1967).
[289]Dunoyer, "De l'influence qu'exercent sur le gouvernement les salaires attachés à l'exercise des fonctions publiques," Le Censeur européen, 1819, no. 11, pp. 105-28.
[290]Le Censeur européen, 1819, 11, p. 112.
291"IV. Du degré de liberté qui est compatible avec la vie des peuples sauvages," Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 119-54.
[292]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 119.
[293]Dunoyer based his account of "savage" life on the writings of Péron, Voyage de découvertes aux terres australes; James Cook, Second Voyage; Robertson, History of America; Alexander von Humboldt, Essai politique sur la Nouvelle-Espagne; Thomas Malthus, Principles of Population; John Heckwelder, Histoires des moeurs et coutumes des six nations; Franklin, Oeuvres moraux; Bouger, Voyage en Pérou.
[294]Dunoyer frequently quoted Rousseau's Contrat social and Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité and Raynal, Histoire philosophique et politique de deux Indes as the two best representatives of the pro-savage and anti-industry school of the Enlightenment. He also described the Rousseauists as "the detractors of the civilised life," L'Industrie et la morale, p. 125.
[295]Quoting the Scottish writer Adam Ferguson's An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Dunoyer asserted that "The moral conduct of the savage towards others is no better than his personal moral conduct. He appears to conduct himself in relations towards other only according to his passions, as he governs himself by his own appetites. And he abandons himself in his affections as he does in his appetites, as Ferguson remarks, without the slightest concern in the world for the consequences of his acts." Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 144-5.
[296]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 146.
[297]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, footnote 2, pp. 146-7. This passage was written some sixty years before Friedrich Engels made similar remarks about the condition of women in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State in the Light of the Researches of Lewis H. Morgan (1884).
[298]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 148.
[299]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 152.
[300]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 152-3.
[301]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 153.
[302]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p.154.
[303]Jean-Baptiste Say, Section one, "Organes essentiels," of "Tableau général de l'économie des sociétés" in Cours complet, vol. 2, p. 334.
304"V. Du degré de liberté qui est compatible avec la vie des peuples nomades," Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 155-88.
[305]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 158.
[306]"La liberté ne consiste pas à pouvoir fuir quand on voudrait rester; mais à pouvoir rester ou partir suivant qu'on le désire." Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 158.
[307]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 163.
[308]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 166. This optimism about the gradual realisation of the unprofitability of war and hence its gradual disappearance is an important component of 19th century French economic liberalism. This attitude has been well discussed by Edmund Silberner, La guerre dans la pensée économique du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Sirey, 1939) and Edmund Silberner, The Problem of War in Nineteenth Century Economic Thought, trans. Alexander H. Krappe (Princeton University Press, 1946).
[309]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 176. "Voilà donc chez les peuples pasteurs plusieurs classes de personnes, les femmes, les enfans, les esclaves, qui vivent sous l'empire absolu de la violence et de la force." Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 178.
[310]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 176.
[311]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 176-7. Dunoyer bases his argument on Malthus' Essay on the Principle of Population and Aristotle.
[312]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 182.
[313]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 183.
[314]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 183.
[315]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 185.
316"VI. Du degré de liberté qui est compatible avec la vie des peuples sédentaires qui se font entretenir par des esclaves," Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 189-237.
[317]The great influence Comte and Dunoyer had in the development of French liberal political economy in the first half of the nineteenth century can be seem from the recognition they received from the authoritative Dictionnaire de l'économie politique in 1852. The author of the article dealing with slavery, Gustave de Molinari, who was later to become the editor of the Journal des économistes and the doyen of the French liberal political economists in the last half of the nineteenth century, duly acknowledged Comte and Dunoyer's pioneering contribution to the debate. Gustave de Molinari, "Esclavage," Dictionnaire de l'économie politique, contenant l'exposition des principes de la science, l'opinion des écrivains qu'ont le plus contribué à sa fondation et à ses progrès, la bibliographie générale de l'économie politique par noms d'auteurs et par ordre de matières avec des notices biographiques et une appréciation raisonnée des principaux ouvrages, eds. Charles Coquelin and Guillaumin (Paris: Guillaumin, 1852), vol. 1, pp. 712-731.
[318]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 190.
[319]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, pp. 190-1.
[320]Dunoyer based his assessment of the destructiveness of nomadic societies on Voltaire's comments in Essai sur les moeurs about Ghengis Khan, Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 196-7.
[321]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 194.
[322]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 198.
[323]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 198-200. Compare Dunoyer with the first half of Brecht's poem "Fragen eines lesenden Arbeiters": "Wer baute das siebentorige Theben? In den Büchern stehen die Namen von Königen. Haben die Könige die Felsbrocken herbeigeschleppt? Und das mehrmals zerstörte Babylon, Wer baute es so viele Male auf? In welchen Häusern Des goldstrahlendend Lima wohnten die Bauleute? Wohin gingen an dem Abend, wo die chinesiche Mauer fertig war, Die Maurer? Das große Rom Ist voll von Triumphbögen. Über wen Triumphierten die Cäsaren? Hatte das vielbesungene Bysanz Nur Paläste für seine Bewohner? Selbst in dem sagenhaften Atlantis Brüllten doch in der Nacht, wo das Meer es verschlang, Die Ersaufenden nach ihren Sklaven..." Bertolt Brecht, Kalendergeschichten (Hamburg: Rowolt, 1953, 1978), p. 74.
[324]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 202-3.
[325]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 204.
[326]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 204.
[327]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 207.
[328]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 218.
[329]Dunoyer makes these comments in a lengthy footnote in L'industrie et la morale, p. 208-10. Comte's article which Dunoyer was referring to was Charles Comte, "De l'organisation sociale considérée dans ses rapports avec les moyens de subsistance des peuples," Le Censeur européen, 1817, vol. 2, pp. 1-66.
[330]Bernard Mandeville, The Fable of the Bees, ed. Phillip Harth (Harmondsworth, 1970) and Thomas A. Horne, The Social Thought of Bernard Mandeville: Virtue and Commerce in Early Eighteenth Century England (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978).
[331]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, pp. 216-17.
[332]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 220.
[333]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 225.
[334]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 223-4.
[335]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 229.
[336]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 233.
[337]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 235.
[338]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, pp. 236-7. I have not been able to find any direct comment by Dunoyer on Comte's rejection of the idea of a "half-way house" between slave and free labour as suggested by Storch.
339"VII. Du degré de liberté qui est compatible avec la vie des peuples qui n'ont pas d'esclaves, mais chez qui tout se fait par privilége," Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 238-77.
[340]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 240.
[341]See the long footnote on the connection between religion and slavery in Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, pp. 241-2.
[342]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 246.
[343]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 244.
[344]Augustin Thierry, The Formation and Progress of the Tiers État or Third Estate in France, trans. Francis B. Webb (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1859), p. 23.
[345]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 246.
[346]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 247.
[347]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, pp. 251-2.
[348]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 257.
[349]"Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 259.
[350]Dunoyer quotes Say's Traité on this matter of inventions and also refers to Colbert's attempts to prevent some workers working more productively than their colleagues in ordinances published in August 1669. Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 260.
[351]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, pp. 262-3.
[352]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 264.
[353]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 266.
[354]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, pp. 267-8.
[355]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 322, footnote.
[356]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 269.
[357]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 270.
[358]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, pp. 270-1.
[359]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 273.
[360]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 274.
[361]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 276.
362"VIII. Du degré de liberté qui est compatible avec la vie des peuples qui n'ont pas de priviléges, mais chez qui tout le monde est emporté vers la recherche des places," Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 278-320.
[363]Compare this view with Comte's distinction between natural and artificial aristocracy in chapter three. Dunoyer returns to the discussion of inequality in chapter 10 "Des obstacles qui s'opposent encore à la liberté dans le régime industriel, ou des bornes qu'elle rencontre dans la nature des choses," Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 369-96, in which he makes the point that although an industrial society will have much less extreme inequalities of wealth than say the ancien régime it will nevertheless encourage inequalities based on talent and hard work: "L'effet du régime industriel est de détruire les inégalités factices; mais c'est pour mieux faire ressortir les inégalités naturelles," p. 372.
[364]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 279-80.
[365]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 290. See also p. 291.
[366]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 280-1.
[367]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 282, footnote.
[368]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 282.
[369]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 283.
[370]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 285-6.
[371]Alexandre comte de Laborde, De l'esprit d'assocaition dans tous les intérêts de la communauté; ou essai sur le complément du bien-être et de la richesse en France par le complément des institutions (Paris: Gide, 1818). Laborde's important book was reviewed by an anonymous reviewer in Le Censeur européen, 1818, vol. 10, pp. 101-55.
[372]See Alexis de Tocqueville, L'ancien régime et la Révolution, ed. J.-P. Mayer (Paris: Gallimard, 1967); Jack Lively, The Social and Political Thought of Alexis de Tocqueville (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962), "Centralisation," pp. 127-82; Seymour Drescher, Tocqueville and England (Harvard University Press, 1964) "England 1835 - Centralisation and Liberty," pp. 74-104. Other liberals in the mid-nineteenth century were also concerned with the question of centralisation of state power. Although it was primarily a French matter, John Stuart Mill took an interest in a review essay of some recent French works on the subject: John Stuart Mill, "Centralisation," Edinburgh Review, April 1862, vol. CXV, pp. 323-58. An interesting discussion from a French liberal political economist on the dangers of centralised power is: Charles Coquelin, "Centralisation," Dictionnaire de l'économie politique, ed. Coquelin et Guillaumin (Paris: Guillaumin, 1852), vol. 1, pp. 291-300. Dunoyer returned to the issue later in his magnum opus where he devoted a chapter to it and an essay in the Journal des Économistes: Charles Dunoyer, De la liberté du travail (1845), where the chapter on place-seeking became "Liberté compatible avec le degré de culture des peuples chez qui les priviléges des ordres et des corporations ont été remplacés par une extension exagérée des pouvoirs de l'autorité centrale," vol. 1, pp. 252-300; and Charles Dunoyer, "Du système de la centralisation, de sa nature, de son influence, de ses limites et des réductions utiles qu'il est destiné à subir," Journal des Économistes, 1842, vol. 1, pp. 353-89.
[373]Dunoyer quotes the discussion of Decazes on the budget in Le Moniteur, June 1819 and Guizot's Des moyens de gouvernement et d'opposition in Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 287-8.
[374]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 289.
[375]What Dunoyer particularly has in mind is education which was once the preserve of numerous private colleges and institutions but which was now the preserve of state "functionaries." Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 294 and footnote.
[376]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 294-5.
[377]The budget papers showed clearly that the high levels of expenditure of the war years had been maintained in peace-time under two very different forms of government - Napoleon's military Empire and the Restored Monarchy. Dunoyer begins with the year 1802 when the budget was F500 million and shows how it increased year by year until in 1813 it had reached the "colossal" sum of F1,150 million. After a temporary reduction to F791 million in the first year of the Restoration, by 1818 it reached the level of the last year of Napoleon's rule, some F1,100 million. After another temporary reduction in 1819, due to the withdrawal of foreign troops on French soil and the subsequent savings in expenditure, by the early 1820s the amount was again pushing the F1,000 million mark. Dunoyer stressed two things to note with these figures. The first was that the expenditure of over F1,000 million was significant because it had been first reached in 1811-1812, when France was at the height of its Empire and had 600,000 men under arms. It seemed extraordinary to him that this level could again have been reached in peace time, unless something had changed in the nature of the state or the economy. The second thing to note was that the tendency to increase government expenditure did not depend on the type of government in power.
[378]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 298, footnote.
[379]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 299-300.
[380]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 302.
[381]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 308-9.
[382]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 305-6.
[383]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 306-7. Clearly Dunoyer's argument makes little sense unless one shares his view that government is essentially a parasitic institution which produces little of value, but which depends on the wealth drawn from society by means of taxes. Thus the transfer of men and capital from private industry to the state is seen by Dunoyer as a net loss to the productivity of the economy. Although he was unwilling to begin the laborious task of making such a calculation of the number of men lost to the government each year, the amount of capital invested in state loans, and an estimate of the financial cost to the economy of the activities of these new government officials, he was willing to make a broad estimate in very round figures of this net drain on the economy. Dunoyer believed that, without exaggeration, the total loss of productivity in the economy due to the "passion" for place-seeking was at least one half of everything that was produced. Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 308.
[384]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 311, 313.
[385]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 311.
[386]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 311-12.
[387]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 314.
[388]Dunoyer took his figures from a speech in the Chamber of Deputies by M. de Pompières on 13 July 1821. Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 314, footnote.
[389]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 315.
[390]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 316.
[391]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 317.
392"IX. Du degré de liberté qui est compatible avec la vie des peuples purement industrieux," L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 321-68.
[393]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 313-4.
[394]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 322-3.
[395]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 323.
[396]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 337.
[397]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 371, footnote.
[398]Dunoyer was struck by article 36 from the Constitution of Pennsylvania, which stated that "Toute homme qui ne possède pas une propriété suffisante, doit avoir quelque profession, métier, commerce ou ferme qui le fasse subsister honnêtement" and assumed, falsely or not, that this was a typical statement of American "industrial" sentiment. Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 324.
[399]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 327, footnote.
[400]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 342.
[401]The best known exponent of this view in the mid-nineteenth century was the free trade activist, member of the Chamber of Deputies and anti-socialist, Frédéric Bastiat, whose incomplete collection of popular essays appropriately named Economic Harmonies appeared posthumously in 1850. Frédéric Bastiat, Economic Harmonies, trans W. Hayden Boyers, ed. George B. de Huszar (Irvington-on-Hudson, New York: Foundation for Economic Freedom, 1968).
[402]For example, the conservative theorist Bonald argued that "(l)e malheur d'un état commerçant est d'être condamné à faire la guerre" in de Bonald, Réflexions sur l'intérêt général de l'Europe quoted in Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 328; Montaigne, who devoted one of his essays to the idea that the profit of one necessarily requires the loss of another; Michel de Montaigne, Complete Essays, ed. Donald Frame (Stanford University Press, 1958), from Book 1, ch. 21; Rousseau, who put forward a similar argument to Montaigne, in Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité, trans. Maurice Cranston (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), note I, pp. 146-54, especially pp. 147-8; and more recently, an essay in the Journal des Débats in 1820.
[403]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 351, footnote.
[404]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 353, footnote.
[405]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 329, footnote.
[406]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 342-3.
[407]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 344. See also Dunoyer's remarks about the inadequacies of traditional political philosophy in the early Restoration due to the neglect of the new science of political economy in "Esquisse," Revue encyclopédique.
[408]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 344.
[409]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 345.
[410]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 347.
[411]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 348-9.
[412]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 355-6.
[413]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 357.
[414]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 358.
[415]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 323.
[416]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 358.
[417]Dunoyer, Le Censeur européen, vol. 2, p.102.
[418]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 359.
[419]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 359-60.
[420]Dunoyer, L'industrie et la morale, p. 297-8, footnote.
[421]Herbert Spencer, Social Statics: The Conditions essential to Human Happiness specified, and the first of them developed (New York: Robert Schalkenbach Foundation, 1970), chapter XIX, "The Right to Ignore the State", pp. 185-94 which Spencer left out in later editions of Social Statics. David Wiltshire, The Social and Political Thought of Herbert Spencer (Oxford University Press, 1978), chapter 6, "The Limits of State Intervention", pp. 135-64. J.D.Y. Peel, Herbert Spencer: The Evolution of a Sociologist (London: Heinemann, 1971), "Anti-Politics of the 1840s" pp. 56-81. Spencer develops his arguments about industrial types of society in Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology, ed. Stanislav Andreski (Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1969).
[422]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 361-2.
[423]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 365-6.
[424]Gustave de Molinari, "De la production de la sécurité," Journal des Économistes, 1849, vol. 22, pp. 277-290, and a little later in Les soirées de la rue Saint-Lazare: entretiens sur les lois économique et défense de la propriété (Paris: Guillaumin, 1849), "Onzième soirée," pp. 303-337.
[425]The evolution of Molinari's views are discussed in David M. Hart, "Molinari, Gustave de and the Anti-statist Liberal Tradition: Part I," Journal of Libertarian Studies, Summer 1981, vol. V, no. 3, pp. 263-290.
[426]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 366-7, fn 1.
[427]Meek, Social Science and the Ignoble Savage, p. 14.
[428]Adam Smith, Lectures on Jurisprudence, ed. R.L. Meek et al. (Indianapolis: Liberty Classics, 1982), p. 401.
[429]Istvan Hont, "The Language of Sociability and Commerce: Samuel Pufendorf and the Theoretical Foundations of the `Four-Stages Theory'," in The Languages of Political Theory in Early-Modern Europe, ed. Anthony Pagden (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 265.
[430]Hont, "The Language of Sociability and Commerce," p. 274.
[431]Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Inequality, trans. Maurice Cranston (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), p. 115.
[432]Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Inequality, p. 115.
[433]Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Inequality, p. 71.
[434]Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Inequality, p. 71.
[435]Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Inequality, p. 106.
[436]Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Inequality, pp. 120-21.
[437]Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Inequality, p.124.
[438]Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Inequality, pp. 133-4.
[439]Quoted in Donald Winch, Adam Smith's Politics: An Essay in Historiographic Revision (Cambridge University Press, 1979), p. 47.
[440]Benjamin Constant, Principes de Politique in De la liberté chez les Modernes. Écrits politiques, ed. Marcel Gauchet (Paris: le livre de poche, 1980), Chapter XV "De l'inviolabilité des propriétés," p. 375.
[441]Donald Winch, Adam Smith's Politics, pp. 51-2.
[442]Adam Smith, Lectures on Jurisprudence, p. 207.
[443]Stendhal, D'un nouveau complot contre les industriels, ed. P. Chartier et el. (Paris: Flammarion, 1972). See also Fernand Rudé, Stendhal et la pensée sociale de son temps (Brionne: Monfort, 1983), "La querelle des industriels (1825)," pp. 101-180.
[444]Benjamin Constant, "De M. Dunoyer et de quelques-uns de ses ouvrages," originally appeared in Revue encyclopédique, February 1826, vol. 29 and republished in Mélanges de littérature et de politique (1829) and in De la liberté chez les modernes, ed. Marcel Gauchet (Paris: Livre de poche, 1980), pp. 543-62.
[445]The theory of industrialism and the contribution of the liberals to its formation has been discussed by Michael James, "Pierre-Louis Roederer, Jean-Baptiste Say, and the concept of industrie," History of Political Economy, 9, 1977; Leonard P. Liggio, "Charles Dunoyer and French Classical Liberalism," 1977, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 455-75; Mark Weinburg, "The Social Analysis of three early nineteenth century French liberals: Say, Comte, and Dunoyer," Journal of Libertarian Studies, 1978, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 45-63; Henri Gouhier, La jeunesse d'Auguste Comte et la formation du positivisme, tome III, Auguste Comte et Saint-Simon (Paris: Librairie philosophique J. Vrin, 1941); and Elie Halévy, "Saint-Simonian Economic Doctrine," The Era Of Tyrannies: Essays on Socialism and War, trans. R.K. Webb (London: Allen Lane, 1967), pp. 17-81; and Henri Saint-Simon, 1760-1825: Selected Writings on Science, Industry and Social Organization, ed. Keith Taylor (London: Croom Helm, 1975); Edgar Allix, "La rivalité entre la propriété foncière et la fortune mobilière sous la Révolution," Revue d'histoire économique et sociale, 6, 1913; Edgar Allix, "J-B Say et les origines de l'industrialisme," Revue d'économie politique, 1910, vol. XXIV, pp. 303-13, 341-63; Shirley M. Gruner, "Forerunners of Industrialism," Economic Materialism and Social Moralism: A Study in the History of Ideas in France from the latter part of the 18th century to the middle of the 19th century (The Hague, 1973).
[446]On the debate over the origins of industrialism see, Gaston Richard, "Le philosophie et l'individualisme économique: l'école positiviste. Ses origines.", Le question sociale et le movement philosophique au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1914), pp. 97-119; René Gonnard, "L'individualisme: J.-B. Say," and "Dunoyer," in Histoire des doctrines économiques (Paris, 1922), vol. II, pp. 252-64, 278-83.
[447]Shirley M. Gruner, "Political Historiography in Restoration France," History and Theory, 1969, vol. VIII, no. 3, p. 351.
[448]Shirley M. Gruner, "Political Historiography in Restoration France," p. 351.
[449]Henri Gouhier argues convincingly that the first explicit enunciation of the theory of industrialism was by Thierry in the essay "L'Industrie." Henri Gouhier, La jeunesse d'Auguste Comte et la formation du positivisme. Vol. III Auguste Comte et Saint-Simon (Paris: J. Vrin, 1941), p. 155.
[450]Frank E. Manuel, The Prophets of Paris: Turgot, Condorcet, Saint-Simon, Fourier, Comte (New York: Harper Torchbook, 1965), p. 112.
[451]Shirley M. Gruner, "Political Historiography in Restoration France," p. 359.
[452]Saint-Simon, "A Political Parable: Premier extrait de L'Organisateur," in Henri Saint-Simon: Selected Writings in Science, Industry and Social Organisation, ed. Keith Taylor (London: Croom Helm, 1975), pp. 194-5. See also Frank E. Manuel, The New World of Henri Saint-Simon (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956), "The Trial," p. 211-2.
[453]Comte, Traité de législation, pp. 372.
[454]Shirley M. Gruner, "Political Historiography in Restoration France," p. 362.
[455]Henri Gouhier, La jeunesse d'Auguste Comte, p. 156.
[456]Frank E. Manuel, The Prophets of Paris, p. 115. See also Jean-François Suter, "Du libéralisme au saint-simonisme," Économies et Sociétés, 1970, vol. IV, no. 6, p. 1097.
[457]Dunoyer, "Esquisse historique des doctrines auxquelles on a donné le nom industrialisme, c'est-à-dire, des doctrines qui fondent la société sur l'Industrie," Revue encyclopédique, février 1827, vol. 33, pp. 368-94. Reprinted in Notices d'économie politique, vol. 2 of Oeuvres, pp. 173-199.
[458]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, p. 332.
[459]Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale, pp. 334-5.
[460]Frank E. Manuel, The Prophets of Paris, p. 133.
[461]Quoted by Friedrich Hayek, The Counter-Revolution of Science: Studies on the Abuse of Reason (Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1979), p. 352. See also Frank E. Manuel, The Prophets of Paris, p. 249.
[462]The first pamphlet, Lettre à un électeur de departement... (Paris: A. Corréard, 1822) appeared during the election of 1822 and the second pamphlet, Du droit de pétition à l'occasion des élections (Paris: Chez les marchants des nouveautés, 1824), was written at the time of the election of 1824, which saw the Chamber of Deputies up for re-election.
[463]Liggio, Journal of Libertarian Studies, p. 164.
[464]Concerning this setback Charles Dunoyer himself says: "Cinq ans plus tard, j'avais entrepris l'impression de l'ouvrage entier, sous le titre de Nouveau Traité d'économie sociale, etc., et deux volumes étaient déjà imprimés quand éclata la Révolution de 1830, qui m'obligea de tout ajourner. Plus tard l'ouvrage, qui n'avait point être mis en vente, se trouva compris dans l'incendie de la rue du Pot-de-Fer, et fut consumé sans avoir été rendu public. Un petit nombre d'exemplaires seulement en avait été par moi distribué aux membres de l'Académie des sciences morales et politiques et à quelques amis. Ce n'est donc qu'aujourd'hui (January 1845), et pour la première fois, qu'il paraît entier." Charles Dunoyer, "Préface de l'auteur," Oeuvres, vol. 1, p. 12, footnote. 1.
[465]In a hand written note on the title page of one of the few copies of the Nouveau traité to survive and which is held by the Goldsmiths' Library of Economic Literature at the University of London, Dunoyer explains the circumstances of the fire, the loss of his work and his hope to republish it in the future: "This work ...(word illegible) in the fire at the Rue du Pot de Fer has been burned before having been published. Only about fifty copies were distributed, mainly by myself at the time of my election and first presentation to the Institute (of Moral and Political Sciences) towards the end of 1832. There no longer exist any copies for sale. The printing of the third and final volume, which has already appeared in fragments in various reviews, had been begun in 1830 when I was appointed Prefect of Allier. I hope to ...(illegible) publish the complete work in the future..." Translated and deciphered with the help of the librarian at the Goldsmiths' Library. Charles Dunoyer, Nouveau traité d'économie social, ou simple exposition des causes sous l'influence desquelles les hommes parviennent à user de leurs forces avec le plus de LIBERTÉ, c'est-à-dire avec le plus FACILITÉ et de PUISSANCE (Paris: Sautelet, 1830), 2 vols.
[466]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 1, pp. 3-4.
[467]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 1, p. 9.
[468]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 1, p. 12.
[469]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 1, p. 13.
[470]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 3.
[471]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 30.
[472]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 36.
[473]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 39.
[474]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 31.
[475]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 32.
[476]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 33.
[477]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 33.
[478]Dunoyer, Nouveau traité, vol. 2, p. 34.