The Lost Tiwa Village:
Ghufoor/Coofor/Alcanfor/Santiago
by DENNIS HERRICK

Referred to today as Santiago Pueblo, this ancient Tiwa town is featured in the book, Winter of the Metal People: The Tiguex War. It was founded in about 1400 as Ghufoor ("parched corn"), a Tiwa village built as a four-sided complex like an apartment building atop a bluff on the west side of the Rio Grande, north of present-day Albuquerque. It is the same pueblo that sixteenth-century Spanish documents called Coofor, Coafor, Coofer, Tiguex or Alcanfor.

This digitally altered old postcard painting offers a look at how a door-less pueblo of two or three stories such as Ghufoor might have appeared to conquistadors in 1540.

Ghufoor thrived for about 150 years, profiting from its location on a major trade route. The Indian road started at the Towa town of Pecos to the east on the edge of the Great Plains, crossing the Rio Grande at Ghufoor and going on to the complex of Zuni towns in the west, where the trail dipped southwestward to Mexico. Turquoise, buffalo hides, pottery and other trade goods were traded to the south for sacred macaw parrots and other goods from Mexico.

The trade route was what made it so easy for Francisco Vázquez de Coronado and his expedition of conquistadors, Spanish militia and Mexican Indian allies to find Ghufoor in 1540. The word "pueblo" for each of the Rio Grande Indian towns — regardless of tribe — came from that time because it is the Spanish word for "town" and was used to distinguish the Tiwas and other tribes living in the stone or adobe complexes from nomadic tribes. The Spaniards also referred to the area on both sides of the Rio Grande where the Tiwa pueblos were located as the Tiguex Province, because Tiguex (TEE-wesh) is the early Spanish phonetic spelling of the plural word that Tiwa people used for themselves.

Adolph F. Bandelier drew this sketch of the parts of Santiago Pueblo's adobe walls that he could see above ground in June of 1882. North is to the top of the drawing.

Shortly after arrival, Coronado commandeered Ghufoor as his expedition's headquarters. From there he waged the Tiguex War against nearly a dozen other Tiwa pueblos on both sides of the river. Pedro de Castañeda, a soldier in Coronado's army, described how Ghufoor's inhabitants were evicted, writing: "As it was necessary that the natives should give the Spanish lodging places, the people in one village (Ghufoor) had to abandon it and go to others belonging to their friends, and they took with them nothing but themselves and the clothes they had on." It is likely that the expeditionaries either attacked the pueblo or threatened to attack it to motivate Ghufoor's residents to move out.

Unable or unwilling to master the Indian pronounciation for the town, the Spaniards renamed Ghufoor as Coofor in some accounts (and by other names in other accounts).

By 1602 the pueblo came to be known as Santiago, identified that year by that name on a Spanish map. Santiago was in the center of the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 attacks in the area, which drove the Spaniards out what is now the United States until the re-conquest in 1692. Somewhere in the late 1600s, Santiago was abandoned and the pueblo deteriorated into a ruin, slowly melting into the ground. When archaeologist Adolph Bandelier arrived in 1882, he drew the first sketch of what remained of the ruin. By then, all that remained of the 400-by-300-foot pueblo were ridges marking the walls of the pueblo's several hundred rooms.

Reginald G. Fisher's sketch of the Santiago Pueblo ruin in 1931 shows the northward orientation. The circular kiva in the northwest corner and the "visita" to the southeast also are depicted. A skeleton with a crossbow bolthead in its chest cavity was found in a room on the south side. The Rio Grande was at the bottom of a bluff to the right side.

Despite the natives at nearby Sandia Pueblo telling Bandelier that the name of the ruin was Santiago, he insisted on thinking it was a different Coronado-era pueblo named Puaray (pronounced pwahRYE). Today, the site of the actual Puaray has been built over by homes about three miles south of Sandia, on the other side of the river. Although other archaeologists realized the site that Bandelier sketched was Santiago, not Puaray, Bandelier's reputation was so dominant that Santiago was called "Bandelier's Puaray" through the 1930s as well as Santiago Pueblo.

Despite Bandelier's confusion over the name, however, even he wrote that the site (by whatever name) probably was the pueblo that Coronado had taken over for the army's headquarters in the winter of 1540-41 and again in the winter of 1541-42, after he returned from his famous trek across Kansas.

That knowledge elevated Santiago Pueblo into one of the most historic sites in New Mexico — but even that would not be enough to save the pueblo from eventual destruction.

In 1931, the Santiago Pueblo site was visited again and sketched, this time by a historian named Reginald G. Fisher. He surveyed the old Tiguex Province, locating the sites of the Tiwa pueblos that had been attacked by Coronado, including Santiago, as well as other sites along the Rio Grande dating to before or after the sixteen century. Traces of many of the ancient pueblos still were visible, and Fisher's sketch of Santiago shows even more detail than Bandelier had been able to record 50 years earlier, including the circular pit of the kiva, where the Tiwas observed their Kachina religion.

Fisher wrote that the site was "reduced to mounds from three to six feet high, with no walls standing above the debris. There has been a little vandalism (from pot hunters). It was originally two or three stories."

Because of Santiago's association with the Coronado Expedition, it was the first of the Rio Grande pueblo sites to be excavated by a University of New Mexico archaeology research team in early 1934. In the south block of rooms, archaeologists made a stunning discovery. They found a Tiwa skeleton with a copper crossbow point in its chest cavity. Because Coronado led the only Spanish expedition armed with crossbows, discovery of Santiago's skeleton verfied the theory that Santiago's inhabitants had been attacked by the Coronado Expedition in 1540.

Views of Santiago Pueblo during its 1934 excavation follow:

	ILLUSTRATION CREDITS: Pueblo drawing adapted from an early 20th century postcard by J.R. Willis. Bandelier drawing from his "Final Report of Investigations Among the Indians of the Southwestern United States." Fisher drawing from his "Second Report of the Archaeological Survey of the Pueblo Plateau." Excavation photos from Vol. XXXVII, 1934, of "El Palacio" magazine.
1934 aerial photo shows excavation underway of two of Santiago's four housing wings —on the west at left and the south. The plaza's circular kiva can be seen near what was the northwest corner.	Photograph during the 1934 excavation of Santiago Pueblo shows the rows of rooms before being covered up again for protection from the elements. This view is believed to be of the west wing, looking north. The entire site was destroyed when the property owner allowed the site to be quarried for gravel in the 1950s.

Bernalillo was across the river, but in the 1930s there still were no homes in the area around the Santiago ruin. Despite its historic value, and its standing as an ancestral home of the Tiwas, the pueblo site was doomed because it was situated on top of a gravel bench.

In the 1950s the entire site was obliterated by bulldozers quarrying the gravel to a depth of about 30 feet. Beginning in 2006, a housing development was built on and around where the historic pueblo had been located.

The name of the new housing development: Santiago.

The unmarked Santiago Pueblo site is in the Santiago housing development south of S.R. 528. A Spanish building southeast of the former pueblo was built in the 1600s, probably as a "visita," or Catholic chapel. It might also have been a colonial ranch house. Indians apparently demolished it in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. The sites of several much older Indian pithouses also were discovered in the area.

A nearby archaeological discovery occurred in 1986, about 400 meters west of where the pueblo used to stand, when road-widening machinery exposed charcoal-stained areas next to S.R. 528. Archaeologists called in to investigate found the remains of a sprawling campsite attributed to Coronado. The members of the army who did not move into Santiago for shelter — probably mostly the Mexican Indian mercenary warriors and the African and Indian slaves and servants — camped in that area outside the pueblo walls.

Now known as the Coronado Campsite, the acreage west of the Santiago site is owned and protected by The Archaeological Conservancy, with author Dennis Herrick as the site steward. The walls of the historic pueblo of Santiago, however, are lost forever. Only knowledge of the pueblo's original location and history remain.