POLISH REGALIA
Crowns, orbs and sceptres of King Augustus III and his consort Queen Maria Josepha together with his coronation mantle from 1733 are kept at the National Museum in Warsaw.
The coronation sword made for Augustus III in 1733 is kept in the Cathedral Treasury at the Royal Basilica in Cracow (skarbiec katedralny na Wawelu).
Szczerbiec, the coronation sword of Polish kings (13th century) is kept at the Royal Castle Wawel in Cracow.
Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown, the royal crown of the Polish kings (14th century) and the queen’s crown, alongside with the orbs, the sceptres and four other Polish royal crowns, one orb and three sceptres were stolen by Prussian troops from the Royal Treasury at Cracow in 1795, carried away to Prussia and finally destroyed in 1809/11 on the order of the king of Prussia Frederick William III.
A set of regalia, including a crown, a sceptre and an orb, was made for Augustus II the Strong of Saxony for his Polish coronation in 1697. It was not used, however. Augustus II’s regalia are kept in Dresden’s Armoury (Rüstkammer) in Germany but are to be moved to the Royal Palace when it has been finally rebuilt.
The coronation mantles of kings Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki (1669) and Stanislaus II Augustus (1764) are kept at the Wawel Cathedral Museum in Cracow (Muzeum Katedralne na Wawelu, Kraków).
Boleslaus the Brave's Crown, 14th century
HISTORY OF THE POLISH REGALIA
BY MARIUSZ PAZDZIORA
Poland witnessed its first coronation in 1025, when Boleslaus I the Brave was crowned King of Poland at Gniezno Cathedral. Several years later, amid political turmoil, Polish regalia were taken by Queen Rycheza, the consort of Boleslaus the Brave’s successor, King Mieszko II, to Germany and handed over to the emperor. As a reward, the Emperor Conrad II allowed Rycheza to retain the queen’s crown. In 1633, when her tomb in Cologne was opened, the said crown was found inside, but later - like the king’s crown six centuries earlier - it too, disappeared.
The next king of Poland, Boleslaus II the Bold and his consort had to order new crowns for their coronation in 1076. Boleslaus the Bold’s regalia were used during the successive Polish coronations of Przemysl II and his consort Margaret of Brandenburg in 1295, and of Wenceslaus II of Bohemia in 1300. Following his coronation in Gniezno, Wenceslaus II took the Polish crown with him to Prague, where it disappeared for good. No images of the first two sets of Polish regalia have survived to the present day, if they ever existed at all.
Ladislaus I the Short, who following a long period of mediaeval fragmentation, united Poland into one kingdom, had no other choice but to order a new set of regalia, the third such in Polish history, for his and his consort’s coronation in 1320. Apart from new crowns the king introduced a new coronation venue: Cracow replaced Gniezno as the place of royal coronations. Although the new Polish crown had nothing to do with Poland’s first king Boleslaus I the Brave, it was soon to be universally known as, and referred to, as Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown. It went down in history under this very name. The name was most probably adopted in order to underline the continuity of the Polish monarchy and its ancient traditions associated with the famous meeting of Duke Boleslaus the Brave and Emperor Otto III in AD 1000 at Gniezno, when the emperor placed a crown, or a royal diadem, on Boleslaus the Brave’s head, what was seen by many contemporaries as Boleslaus’s coronation and the recognition of Poland’s sovereignty by the Holy Roman Empire.
A modern copy of the Crown of Boleslaus the Brave
Photo: Piotr Drozdzik, ©Adam Orzechowski http://www.replikiregaliowpl.com/
The Polish royal crown, Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown, like most European regalia, had a turbulent and exciting history before it was destroyed on the orders of the Prussian king, Frederick William III, in the early 19th century. Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown consisted of ten gold segments in shaped as fleurs-de-lis arched with four hoops surmounted with a gold globe and a cross on its top. The hoops and the globe and the cross were probably late 14th century additions, as initially the Polish crown was a corona aperta. Later additions had changed the character of the crown creating the corona clausa, like most European crowns. The ten gold segments of the crown could be detached from one another and duly adjusted to the proportions of the royal head. The last king of Poland, Stanislaus II Augustus, had the crown adjusted for his coronation in 1764, so that he used only eight of the ten fleur-de-lis segments. Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown was adorned with a substantial number of pearls, rubies, emeralds and sapphires. Each gold segment contained ten pearls, eleven big gemstones and twenty small ones, which added up to an imposing number of one hundred pearls, one hundred and ten large gems and two hundred small ones. According to a 1609 account of the Polish regalia kept at the Royal Treasury in Cracow, the king’s crown was adorned with 396 gems and pearls. In 1730 the number increased to 454, and in 1792, three years before the Prussian theft of the Polish regalia, to 474! In contrast to the earlier mediaeval Polish regalia, Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown was depicted on several occasions. Apart from royal portraits it was documented in a 1764 drawing by Marcello Bacciarelli, the court painter of the unfortunate Stanislaus II Augustus, and at about the same time it was painted-alongside with other Polish regalia used for Stanislaus II’s coronation-by Jan Krzysztof Werner.
 
The Royal Castle in Cracow where Polish regalia were safeguarded until 1795.
Nowadays only the coronation sword of Polish kings, the Szczerbiec, is kept there. ©ARB
Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown was the most venerated item of the Polish regalia, which can be compared to the Hungarians’ veneration of St Stephen’s Crown, as almost all Polish kings, starting with Ladislaus I the Short in 1320 were crowned with it. The Polish royal crown was therefore associated with the most fortunate period in Polish history, when Poland emerged united under Ladislaus the Short and soon made her way up as one of the major political powers in Europe. The Piast Dynasty, which descended from Poland’s first king, Boleslaus I the Brave and his ancestors, died out with Casimir III the Great in 1370. That same year the Angevins of Hungary ascended the Polish throne. Louis the Great of Hungary was crowned king of Poland in Cracow (1370) and returned shortly thereafter to Hungary, taking Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown with him. When Louis the Great’s daughter Hedvig was to be crowned as the next sovereign of Poland in 1384, a new crown had to be ordered for the occasion, as King Louis’s widow, Elizabeth of Bosnia, refused to return Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown to Polish hands. It is not known which crown Hedvig was crowned with, but it is quite possible that the Polish queen’s crown from 1320 was used, as King Louis the Great took with him to Hungary only the king’s regalia, leaving the remaining Polish regalia in Cracow.
In 1385 Poland and Lithuania entered a long lasting union. The Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jagiello, married Queen Hedvig of Poland and in 1386 he was duly crowned king of Poland as Ladislaus II Jagiello. As Elizabeth of Bosnia continued to refuse to hand over the Polish royal crown, "a new crown of gold and precious stones" was made for the king, according to a Polish chronicler. Not much is known about the new crown, nor what finally happened to it. In spite of ordering a new crown, Ladislaus II Jagiello had not given up pressing the Hungarians for the return of Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown. Finally in 1412 the new Hungarian king, Sigismund of Luxembourg, returned the Polish crown. It was then transferred to Cracow, where amid joyful celebrations the crown and other regalia were exhibited in Our Lady’s church for all to see. It was the first public exhibition of the Polish national regalia.
The next king to be crowned with Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown was the unfortunate Ladislaus III of Varna in 1434. Thirteen Polish kings after him were crowned with it, ending with Stanislaus II Augustus in 1764. There were only three exceptions. Stephen Batory was crowned with the so called Hungarian crown in 1576, as his political opponents locked up Boleslaus the Brave’s crown in the Royal Treasury in Cracow, in an attempt to prevent Stephen Batory’s coronation.
Poland in the early 18th century was a country in turmoil: Augustus II, supported by Russia, had been dethroned, giving way to Stanislaus I, who was supported by Sweden. With the Swedish occupation of parts of Poland, Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown was in 1702 taken abroad to safety in Silesia and hidden there. In 1705 Stanislaus I Leszczynski (whose daughter Maria was Louis XV’s consort and Queen of France) was crowned in Warsaw under Swedish protection with a crown which was especially prepared for the occasion by the Swedes. A Polish chronicler of the time remarked that the gold crown was taken away from the king right after his coronation and quickly used to strike coins for the Swedish troops. Five years after his coronation, following the Swedish defeat at Poltava, Stanislaus I was dethroned by victorious Russian troops, who then restored Augustus II. Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown and the other regalia were returned to Cracow in 1730. In 1733 Stanislaus I was reelected king of Poland. A minority of the electorate opted for Augustus III, son of Augustus II. Poland found itself again in turmoil and once again the Polish regalia were hidden, in order not to allow the coronation of Augustus III, who enjoyed Russia’s support.
Stanislaus I had the chance to wear Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown in 1733 when he was restored to the Polish throne. The king appeared in the Holy Cross Church in Warsaw in the splendour of the Polish regalia, wearing Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown which had been hidden in the very same church. But this was not a coronation, as the validity of the 1705 coronation was recognised. Soon, however, Russian troops supporting Augustus III approached Warsaw and Stanislaus I was forced to flee Poland one more time. The Polish regalia were taken to the Jasna Góra monastery in Czestochowa and hidden there in order not to allow Augustus III to be crowned king of Poland. But Augustus III was fully prepared for such a possibility. In 1733 he had a new set of regalia made in Saxony for his Polish coronation and was duly crowned with them in 1734 at Cracow. In 1736 the opponents of Augustus III gave up and finally handed over Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown to the Royal Treasury in Cracow, where it remained until 1795.
Poland witnessed its last coronation in 1764 (1), this time in Warsaw, where the last king of Poland, Stanislaus II Augustus, was crowned with the entire splendour of the Polish regalia. Prior to the coronation an unusual exhibition had taken place: for the first time for centuries the Polish regalia, brought especially for the coronation from Cracow, were put on public display in Warsaw’s Royal Castle. The last public display of the Polish regalia took place in 1792 at Cracow’s Royal Castle. The last inventory of Polish regalia was drawn up prior to the exhibition by a special parliamentary commission. The 1792 inventory of Polish regalia included:
1. The King’s crown, the so called Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown or corona originalis sive privilegiata.
2. The Queen’s crown.
3. The Homage crown or corona homagialis.
4. The so called Hungarian crown.
5. The so called Swedish crown.
6. Four sceptres.
7. Five orbs.
8. Four swords, including the coronation sword of Polish kings, Szczerbiec.
The National Museum in Warsaw where the regalia of King Augustus III and Queen Maria Josepha are kept (reproduced courtesy of Mr Tomasz Moszczynski)
The final decades of the 18th century proved especially disastrous for Poland. The kingdom suffered three partitions initiated by Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1772, 1793 and finally in 1795, which effectively erased the Polish Kingdom from the map of Europe. Following the second partition, the Poles organised a national insurrection the aim of which was to save the rump of Poland from foreign occupation. The result was just the reverse: the Russians, Prussians and Austrians occupied and effectively divided the rump of Poland among themselves. In 1794 Prussian troops captured Cracow and, as Cracow was to be given over to the Austrians, the Prussian king, Frederick William II, gave an immediate order to plunder the Polish Crown Treasury. In 1795, a few months before handing over Cracow to the Austrians, the Prussians stormed the powerful gates of the Polish Royal Treasury and stole all the Polish regalia inside it, including Boleslaus the Brave’s Crown. The assault was carried out secretly, as the Prussian king was afraid of Austrian and Russian reactions to this unprecedented act of barbarity. Before the Prussian garrison left Cracow in January 1796, the Polish regalia were carried away to Prussian Silesia and then to Berlin. The Austrians having discovered this unbelievable theft, made an immediate written account of what they saw in the treasury following the takeover of Cracow from Prussian hands. It was corroborated by numerous witnesses.
The Duchy of Warsaw which emerged under Napoleon Bonaparte’s auspices, demanded that the Polish regalia be returned by the Prussian king. The Prussians did not bother to answer, and the Poles did not press hard enough for the return of the regalia. In 1800 Augustus Duke of Sussex had a chance to see for himself the stolen Polish regalia, during his visit to Berlin. In his account to a Polish friend, the Duke of Sussex said that during that visit "A crown of your kings was placed on my head". The account of the Duke of Sussex is an important piece of evidence corroborating the Prussians’ responsibility for the theft of the Polish regalia. Nine years after the Duke of Sussex tried on Boleslaus the Brave’s crown, the Polish regalia were sent to Königsberg and destroyed on the personal orders of Frederick William III, King of Prussia. The gold obtained from the regalia (over 25 pounds) was used by the Prussians to mint gold coins, while the numerous gemstones and the pearls were sold. In 1700 the so called Crown of Muscovy, ordered for the coronation of Polish Crown Prince Ladislaus (later Ladislaus IV) as the czar of Russia, was pawned with Elector Frederick, later king of Prussia. This crown, too, was destroyed in 1809 along with the remaining Polish regalia.
The Kingdom of Poland created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 was nothing more than a Russian protectorate. The Russian czars wanted to keep an illusion of Polish "independence", therefore both Alexander I and Nicholas I insisted on being crowned in Warsaw. On several occasions the czars had demanded the Polish regalia to be returned to them, but the King of Prussia remained silent. The only piece of Polish regalia which escaped destruction at Prussian hands was the coronation sword of the Polish kings, the thirteenth century Szczerbiec ("the nicked"). It was later sold to a Russian agent who then sold it to a Russian antique collector. The sword changed hands several times in course of the 19th century and finally it was purchased by the Russian czar in 1884 for the Hermitage Museum in Petersburg. But the turbulent history of the coronation sword of the Polish kings did not end here. In 1928, eight years after the Soviet defeat in the Polish-Soviet war of 1920, the Soviet government fulfilled one of its commitments to return the most important historical artifacts stolen by the Russians in Poland and the returned objects included the coronation sword of the Polish kings. Szczerbiec remained in Poland for barely eleven years. Following the German-Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, the sword and other treasures from the Royal Collections in Cracow, were shipped to Romania, then to France and finally to Canada. They were returned to Poland in 1959 and the coronation sword of the Polish kings has been on display at Cracow’s Royal Castle ever since.
 
Regalia of King Augustus III and his Queen Maria Josepha, 1734. ©ARB
Apart from Szczerbiec, the only Polish regalia which have been preserved down to our own times are the crowns, sceptres and orbs used for the 1734 coronation of Augustus III of Saxony and his consort Maria Josepha. Augustus III’s regalia were ordered in 1733 just a few months before the intended coronation. The crowns were made of gilded silver by a Saxon goldsmith, Heinrich Köhler. Originally the regalia were adorned with precious gemstones, but later these were replaced with imitations. Both crowns are closed (coronae clausae) and surprisingly no cross surmounts any of them. Each of them is arched with four hoops. The king’s crown is adorned with seventeen big rubies and twelve smaller ones, sixteen big sapphires, ten smaller ones and a huge one on the crown’s top. Further, the crown is adorned with ten big emeralds and twenty-four small ones, and finally with fifty-six diamonds. The queen’s crown is adorned with one hundred and thirty-nine diamonds and pearls. Following Augustus III’s coronation, the regalia were taken back to Warsaw, but later removed to Dresden, where Augustus III resided, visiting Warsaw only on a few occasions. Augustus III’s regalia remained in Dresden’s Grünes Gewölbe until 1924, when the Saxon Landtag returned them to the former king of Saxony, Frederick Augustus III. Frederick Augustus III, who was a well-known collector of china figurines, exchanged Augustus III’s regalia for precious china figurines from a Viennese antique shop. In 1925 the Polish government purchased Augustus III’s regalia in Vienna for 175,000 zlotys (c. $ 35,000). The regalia were exhibited at Warsaw’s Royal Castle until 1939. Following the German occupation of Poland in 1939 the regalia were hidden by the employees of the National Museum in Warsaw, but were soon discovered by the Germans. In 1940 they were taken to Cracow by order of the German governor general of occupied Poland, Hans Frank. Soon, however, they were sent back to Warsaw and in the summer of 1944, alongside with thousands of other artifacts stolen from Polish museums, they were dispatched to Germany. The crowns were found by Soviet troops in Germany and then sent to the USSR where they remained until 1960. In 1960 the Soviets decided to return the crowns to their satellite, communist Poland. Augustus III’s regalia were deposited in Warsaw’s National Museum where they are kept.
NOTES:
(1) Last coronation as an independent country. In the 19th century one Russian czar, Nicholas I, was crowned in Warsaw as king of the Congress Kingdom of Poland. Nicholas I, who was crowned in 1829, was dethroned by the Polish Parliament barely two years later.
POLISH CORONATIONS IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER (Year, venue, name of the crowned):
1025 GNIEZNO: Boleslaus I the Brave
1025 GNIEZNO: Mieszko II and Rycheza
1076 GNIEZNO: Boleslaus II the Bold
1295 GNIEZNO: Przemysl II and Margaret of Brandenburg
1300 GNIEZNO: Wenceslaus II
1303 PRAGUE: Ryksa of Poland, consort of Wenceslaus II
1320 CRACOW: Ladislaus I the Short and Hedvig of Great Poland
1333 CRACOW: Casimir III the Great and Aldona Anna of Lithuania
1341 POZNAN: Adelaide of Hesse, consort of Casimir III the Great
1370 CRACOW: Louis the Great of Hungary
1384 CRACOW: Saint Hedvig of Anjou
1386 CRACOW: Ladislaus II Jagiello
1403 CRACOW: Anna of Cilli (Celje), consort of Ladislaus II Jagiello
1417 CRACOW: Elizabeth of Pilcza, consort of Ladislaus II Jagiello
1424 CRACOW: Sophia of Holszany, consort of Ladislaus II Jagiello
1434 CRACOW: Ladislaus III of Varna
1447 CRACOW: Casimir IV Jagiellonian
1454 CRACOW: Elizabeth of Austria, consort of Casimir IV Jagiellonian
1492 CRACOW: John I Albert
1501 CRACOW: Alexander Jagiellonian
1507 CRACOW: Sigismund I the Old
1512 CRACOW: Barbara Zapolya, consort of Sigismund I the Old
1518 CRACOW: Bona Sforza of Milan, consort of Sigismund I the Old
1530 CRACOW: Sigismund II Augustus
1543 CRACOW: Elizabeth of Habsburg, consort of Sigismund II Augustus
1550 CRACOW: Barbara of Radziwill, consort of Sigismund II Augustus
1553 CRACOW: Catherine of Habsburg, consort of Sigismund II Augustus
1574 CRACOW: Henry of Valois
1576 CRACOW: Stephen Batory and Anna Jagiellonian
1587 CRACOW: Sigismund III Vasa
1592 CRACOW: Anna of Austria, consort of Sigismund III Vasa
1605 CRACOW: Constance of Austria, consort of Sigismund III Vasa
1633 CRACOW: Ladislaus IV
1637 WARSAW: Cecilia Renata of Austria, consort of Ladislaus IV
1646 CRACOW: Louise Marie Gonzaga, consort of Ladislaus IV
1649 CRACOW: John II Casimir
1669 CRACOW: Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki
1670 WARSAW: Eleanor of Habsburg, consort of Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki
1676 CRACOW: John III Sobieski and Maria Casimira de la Grange d’Arquien
1697 CRACOW: Augustus II the Strong
1705 WARSAW: Stanislaus I Leszczynski and Catherine
1734 CRACOW: Augustus III and Maria Josepha of Austria
1764 WARSAW: Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski
1829 WARSAW: Nicholas I of Russia
Select Bibliography
Lileyko J., Regalia polskie, Warszawa 1987
Rozek M., Polskie koronacje i korony, Kraków 1987
Matejko J. & Grodziski S., Poczet królów polskich, Kraków 1993
POLISH CORONATIONS
CRACOW, ROYAL BASILICA (Kraków, Bazylika Królewska na Wawelu):
1320: Ladislaus I the Short and Hedvig of Great Poland
1333: Casimir III the Great and Aldona Anna of Lithuania
1370: Louis the Great of Hungary
1384: Saint Hedvig of Anjou
1386: Ladislaus II Jagiello
1403: Anna of Cilli (Celje), consort of Ladislaus II Jagiello
1417: Elizabeth of Pilcza, consort of Ladislaus II Jagiello
1424: Sophia of Holszany, consort of Ladislaus II Jagiello
1434: Ladislaus III of Varna
1447: Casimir IV Jagiellonian
1454: Elizabeth of Austria, consort of Casimir IV Jagiellonian
1492: John I Albert
1501: Alexander Jagiellonian
1507: Sigismund I the Old
1512: Barbara Zapolya, consort of Sigismund I the Old
1518: Bona Sforza of Milan, consort of Sigismund I the Old
1530: Sigismund II Augustus
1543: Elizabeth of Habsburg, consort of Sigismund II Augustus
1550: Barbara of Radziwill, consort of Sigismund II Augustus
1553: Catherine of Habsburg, consort of Sigismund II Augustus
1574: Henry of Valois
1576: Stephen Batory and Anna Jagiellonian
1587: Sigismund III Vasa
1592: Anna of Austria, consort of Sigismund III Vasa
1605: Constance of Austria, consort of Sigismund III Vasa
1633: Ladislaus IV
1646: Louise Marie Gonzaga, consort of Ladislaus IV
1649: John II Casimir
1669: Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki
1676: John III Sobieski and Maria Casimira de la Grange d’Arquien
1697: Augustus II the Strong
1734: Augustus III and Maria Josepha of Austria
The Royal Basilica in Cracow. ©ARB
GNIEZNO, BASILICA OF THE ASSUMPTION (Gniezno, Bazylika Katedralna Wniebowziecia NMP):
1025: Boleslaus I the Brave
1025: Mieszko II and Rycheza
1076: Boleslaus II the Bold
1295: Przemysl II and Margaret of Brandenburg
1300: Wenceslaus II
The Basilica of Gniezno
(reproduced courtesy of Mr Alexander Kosmala)
POZNAN, BASILICA OF ST PETER AND ST PAUL (Poznan, Bazylika Archikatedralna sw. Piotra i Pawla):
1341: Adelaide of Hesse, consort of Casimir III the Great
The Basilica of Poznan
(reproduced courtesy of Ms Malgorzata Kosmala)
PRAGUE, CATHEDRAL OF ST VITUS/CZECH REPUBLIC (Praha, chram sv. Vita):
1303: Ryksa of Poland, consort of Wenceslaus II
The Cathedral of St Vitus in Prague
(reproduced courtesy of Mr Jerzy Pazdziora)
WARSAW, ROYAL CASTLE (Warszawa, Sala Senatorska na Zamku Królewskim):
1829: Nicholas I of Russia
The Royal Castle in Warsaw
(reproduced courtesy of Ms Malgorzata Kosmala)
WARSAW, BASILICA OF ST JOHN THE BAPTIST (Warszawa, Bazylika Archikatedralna sw. Jana Chrzciciela):
1637: Cecilia Renata of Austria, consort of Ladislaus IV
1670: Eleanor of Habsburg, consort of Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki
1705: Stanislaus I Leszczynski and Catherine
1764: Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski
Warsaw, St John's Basilica
(reproduced courtesy of Mr Tomasz Moszczynski)
POLISH ROYAL RESIDENCES
(The list includes only the most important and existing royal residences)
CRACOW (Kraków):
Royal Castle Wawel (Zamek Królewski na Wawelu; the official residence of Polish kings from the Middle Ages until the early 17th century, now a museum).
Wawel - the Royal Castle in Cracow. ©ARB
GRODNO (Hrodna; now Belarus):
Royal Castle (Zamek Królewski), one of major residences of Polish kings. Now a museum.
NIEPOLOMICE:
Royal Castle (Zamek Królewski) built for King Casimir III the Great (14th c.) and used as a hunting lodge by subsequent Polish kings. Rebuilt in Renaissance style by King Sigismund II Augustus, 1550-1571. Now a museum.
Niepolomice, Royal Castle
WARSAW (Warszawa):
Royal Castle (Zamek Królewski; the official residence of Polish kings from early 17th century to 1831, now a museum).
The Royal Castle in Warsaw
(reproduced courtesy of Mr Tomasz Moszczynski)
WARSAW (Warszawa):
Lazienki, The Palace on the Water (Lazienki, Palac na Wodzie; enchanting 18th cent. summer residence of King Stanislaus II Augustus, now a museum).
The Lazienki Palace in Warsaw
(reproduced courtesy of Ms Malgorzata Kosmala)
WARSAW (Warszawa):
Ujazdów Palace (Zamek Ujazdowski; built for kings Sigismund III Vasa and Ladislaus IV, now housing an art gallery).
The Ujazdów Castle in Warsaw
(reproduced courtesy of Mr Tomasz Moszczynski)
WARSAW (Warszawa):
Wilanów Palace (Palac w Wilanowie; elegant summer residence of King John III Sobieski, now a museum).
The Wilanów Palace in Warsaw
(reproduced courtesy of Mr Tomasz Moszczynski)
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