Segment 1: The Destructive Dragon


Click here for a bare-bones outline of the story
Chinese transcription (1)
 Translation
大日本國(2)東海道相模國江嶋者天龍八部之 所造、辨（辯）才天女之霊體也。 The island of Enoshima, which is part of the land of Sagami of the Tokaido (Eastern Sea Route) district of Great Japan, was created by deities of the eight classes (3). This island is sacred to the goddess Benzaiten (4). 

Notes/Comments

(1) I have generally followed the transcription of 「江島縁起」考：服部清道：横浜商大論集　別冊 (An Investigation of the Enoshima Engi, by Seido Hattori), except where there are obvious errors.

(2) The manabon, or Chinese text, begins with the phrase 大日本国 Dainihonkoku, or "Great Country of Japan." The first instance of this term is in Japanese is in the 日本書記 Nihongi (see Aston, pg. 279) in a section referring to the year 663 AD. Aston duly notes that this is the first occurrence of Dainihonkoku in Japanese writings. Thereafter, the term does not occur commonly until the 13th century. The Nihongi, or Chronicles of Japan, was compiled at the Heian court in 712 and 720 AD and subsequently edited and re-issued many times.

(3) The eight kinds of supernatural beings — devas, nagas, yasha, and so on — who protect Buddhism.

(4) The island embodies her spirit.


Chinese transcription
 Translation
謹撿（検）霊嶋先起者、房蔵相三箇國之境、鎌 倉與海月郡(3)之間、有四十里(2)之湖水、号淙(深)澤(4)。
 A careful investigation into the antecedents of Enoshima island (1) reveals that there once was a large lake, with a perimeter of 40 li (2), lying between Kamakura and Umitsuki county (3) on the borders between the three lands of Boshu (4), Musashi, and Sagami. The lake was called Fukasawa (5). 
其湖水為體、水滔々四山逆影、雲霧鎮埋谿、犲狼満岡。若人到時者、黒風 拂梢、白狼咽岸而間人跡更絶湖邊。 The surrounding hills were reflected in the billowing waters of this body of water. Clouds and mist filled the valleys and wolf-dogs roamed the hills. When a person happened to appear at the lake, dank breezes brushed the treetops and white wolves howled on its banks. Therefore, signs of human presence were absent at its shores. 

Notes/Comments

(1) The monk Kokei (皇慶), who was resident at Enryakuji (延暦寺) Temple near Kyoto, is telling us that he has made a thorough study of the story of Enoshima Island. Although Enoshima is fairly distant from Kyoto, a number of noted monks, including some from Enryakuji, had visited Enoshima by 1047 AD, when Kokei wrote the Enoshima Engi. Presumably, one or more collected the information that Kokei used to compose the history.

The reading "Kokei" for 皇慶 is the primary reading given in two standard Buddhist dictionaries: Bukyodaijiten (佛教大辞典), edited by Mochizuki Shinko (望月信亨), pg. 1038) and Oda Bukkyodaijiten (織田・佛教大辞典), edited by Oda Tokuno (織田得能), pg. 320.

(2) New Kokei apparently regarded Lake Dongting (洞庭湖), which anciently was China's largest lake, as one of the models for the lake in the Enoshima Engi (see Parallels with Lake Dongting, later in this study). Lake Dongting is also known as 800-li-Dongting (八 百里洞庭), a reference to its great size. Therefore, Kokei probably used the Chinese li as his unit of length.  Li of varying length have been used in China, ranging from 359 meters to 576 meters. Thus, 40 li could have been anywhere from 14.36 kilometers (1 li = 359 meters) to 23.04 kilometers (1 li = 576 meters), depending on the length of the li. The presence of a body of water of approximately these dimensions been confirmed by geological and archeological investigations (refer to this part of the study).

(3) 海月郡 (Umitsuki county) is first cited in the chronicle history Azuma Kagami (吾妻鏡) in a section dated 1190 (建久 十年・二月六日), where it is mentioned as belonging to the land of Musashi. The Azuma Kagami, which covers events between 1180 and 1266, was compiled in the 14th century by the Kamakura Shogunate.

(4) The reference to Boshu (房州), or Awa (安房の国), which lay at the tip of the Boso Peninsula and was not underwater during the Jomon Transgression (縄文海進), is not clear.

(5) Place-names incorporating Fukasawa ("deep swamp") are found clustered in the former flood-plain south of the Kashio River near present-day Fujisawa City, which indicates that echoes of the large swampy lake still exist (also see 江島考, pg. 46).

Chinese transcription
 Translation
爰有猛悪之龍、即五頭一身之龍王也。屢ト湖水 為栖。
 A fierce, evil dragon, a dragon-king with five heads on one body (1), frequently made this lake its lair.

Notes/Comments

(1) Refer here for a discussion of the nature of the dragon and the significance of its five heads.

The corresponding part of the Japanese version adds some information about the description of the dragon. This part of the translation is in italics to indicate that it is not part of the Chinese version.
Japanese manuscript
 Japanese transcription
 Translation
Dragon description (Jp)
 隆准の鼻、胡髯の頤、眼に白日をつらぬき、身 に黒雲をまとへり。
 This dragon had a prominent snout, whiskers on its chin, its eyes emitted piercing rays like the sun at daybreak, and its torso was surrounded by black clouds.

Notes/Comments

(1) Note the contrast between Kokei's simple reference to a dragon with five heads and the description of the dragon above. The dragon in the Japanese version has acquired traditional myth-related features such as a torso surrounded by black clouds. If Kokei's Chinese version is earlier, which seems likely, the dragon in the Japanese version has begun to undergo the process of acquiring mythological characteristics.

The destructive dragon begins to rage.
Chinese transcription
 Translation
自神武天皇御宇至于人王十一代垂仁天皇之御 宇、七百余年之間、彼悪龍伴風伯鬼魅山神等逕（遶）國土為災害。所謂崩山出洪水、損物成病痾乱逆。
 During the seven-hundred-year period from the time of the Emperor Jinmu (traditional dates 660-585 BC) (1) to the time of Emperor Suinin (29 BC-70 AD), the evil dragon, accompanied by the spirit of the wind, demons, mountain spirits, and other spirits, wreaked calamities throughout the land. Mountains and hills crumbled, releasing floods and causing damage resulting in plagues and revolts.

Notes/Comments

(1) Kokei is here using the chronology of the Nihongi to assign very rough dates to the stages of destruction caused by the dragon. The early emperors up to Ojin, the 15th emperor, are generally considered legendary, and it is unknown whether they existed or what their true dates were. This study simply uses the traditional dates because Kokei used them. In any case, Kokei is saying that the rains of fire (or heavy rains) and other events mentioned in the following passages took place before the descent of the goddess onto Enoshima (in 552 AD) and after the dragon started its rampage (i.e., after flooding became a serious problem).


Chinese transcription
 Translation
第十二代景行天皇治六十年之間、悪龍於東國常 降大（火）(1)雨。依之國民以石窟為人屋。
 During the 60-year reign of Emperor Keikou (71-130 AD), the 12th emperor, the evil dragon constantly made fire (1) [or torrential rains] and rain descend on the eastern lands [roughly today's Kanto region]. Consequently, the people made their homes in stone caves (2).

Notes/Comments

(1) It is unclear whether the Chinese text refers to "fire and rain" or to "heavy rains." One transcription reads 火雨 and the other transcription reads 大雨. However, a separate version of the text from an Edo-era work entitled Enoshima Ozoshi (江島大草紙), quoted in 江島考, pg. 43, reads 景行天皇ノ御時悪龍東國二於テ火ノ雨ヲ降ス。Whether the rains were of fire or simply heavy, some inhabitants could have sought refuge in caves. In the case of heavy rains causing flooding, they would have sought out caves well above their estimate of the crest (maximum height) of the flood.

Kure states (江島考, pg. 12) that the Enoshima Ozoshi (江島大草紙) is a manuscript composed in 1754 kept in the library of the Imperial Household Ministry (宮内省), now known as the Imperial Household Agency (宮内庁). 

(2) This may well be a reference to yokoana (横穴), or "horizontal holes," a type of stone tomb carved into the side of a hill during the Kofun period. They are especially common on the hills along the course of the Kashio-Sakai River. Of course, they are anachronistic because they date from a later period. However, if Kokei wrote based on information about Enoshima brought back by monks who had visited the area, he probably only knew that yokoana tombs were common, not that they dated from a later period.


The Japanese version adds a few details to the description of the calamities.

Japanese manuscript
 Japanese transcription
 Translation
Description of calamities
 景行天皇の御代に龍の悪いよいよさかりなり。 氷の雨くたりて人をころす。時におほく石窟にかくる。冬は穴にすみ、夏は巣にすみけん。上古の代もかくやありし。
 At the time of Emperor Keikou (71-130 AD), the evils caused by the dragon increased. Hailstones fell, killing people. At the time, many people had to hide in stone caverns. It is related that in winter they lived in holes and in summer in trees, like the way people lived in the most ancient times (2).

Notes/Comments

(1) This is not implausible. In China there are many documented accounts of hailstones killing people. On July 20, 2002, for example, Reuters reported "A downpour of giant hailstones, some the size of eggs, killed 15 people and left hospitals overflowing with head-wound victims in central China [northern Henan province], state media and local officials said."

(2) The description of life in the most ancient times (people living in holes in the winter and in trees in the summer) stems from a passage in Zhuangzi, 29, The Robber Zhi: 且吾聞之，古者禽獸多而人民少，於是民皆巢居以避之，晝拾橡栗，暮栖木上，故命之曰有巢氏之民  (And moreover I have heard that anciently birds and beasts were numerous, and men were few, so that they lived in nests in order to avoid the animals. In the daytime they gathered acorns and chestnuts, and in the night they roosted on the trees; and on account of this they are called the people of the Nest-builder — translated by Legge)  A similar story is told by Mencius (3B9: translation by D. C. Lau): "In the time of Yao, the water reversed its natural course, flooding the central regions, and the reptiles made their homes there, depriving the people of a settled life. In low-lying regions, people lived in nests; in high regions, they lived in caves."

The dragon meddles in political affairs.
Chinese transcription
 Translation
二十一代安康天皇御宇、龍鬼託圓大臣令成悪 事。事廿六代武烈天皇之御宇龍気（鬼）託金村大臣令成乱逆。
 At the time of the Emperor Anko (453-456 AD), the 21st emperor, the dragon and its demons relied on Minister En (1) to cause troubles. At the time of the Emperor Buretsu (498-506 AD), the dragon and its demons relied on Minister Kanamura (2) to foment disorder and revolts.

Notes/Comments

(1) A reference to O-omi Tsubura (葛城円大臣), whose family seat was in Katsuragi. Emperor Yuryaku (456-479 AD, traditional dating) punished him with death. The pronunciation "En" instead of Tsubura is from the kana gloss.

(2) A reference to Otomo no Kanamura no Muraji (大伴の金村の連), a powerful minister whose career spanned over 40 years and five emperors, beginning with service to Emperor Buretsu and ending with service to Emperor Kinmei. He fell from power in 540 AD, after the failure of his family's attempts to aid Paekche against Silla in power struggles in Korea. However, his failure helped to pave the way for the introduction of Buddhism into Japan. Kokei must have had some religio-political grudge against these ministers.

The dragon begins to devour children.
Chinese transcription
 Translation
此時五頭龍初出現湖水之南山(1)之谷津村 (2)水門、初噉食人児。仍時人此所名初噉澤、西岳号江野(3)。此澤者湖水之水門(4)、南海之入江也。
 At this time, the five-headed dragon first appeared at the water gate of Tsumura Village (2) in the valley of South Hill (the hill south of the lake) and began to devour children. From that time named this place Hatsukuhisawa ("Swamp Where the Dragon First Began to Devour People") and called the steep hills to the west Eno (3). This swamp was the water gate (4) to the waters of the lake and an estuary of the Southern Sea [Sagami Bay]. 

Notes/Comments

(1) "South Hill" was the hill south of the lake. Since the lake was located in the flood-plain of the Kashio River (refer to this map), South Hill was part of what today is known as Katase Hill (片瀬山).

(2) The village of Tsumura (津村) had a boat landing for trips to Enoshima. This is indicated by passages in the later portion of both the Chinese and Japanese versions which relate that well-known eighth- and ninth-century monks such as Kobo Daishi and Jikaku Daishi boarded boats at Tsumura to travel to Enoshima Island. Nowadays, Tsumura is well inland. If the center of Tsumura village was located in the vicinity of modern Nishi-Kamakura station, then it was about 2.5-3 kilometers from Enoshima. The present-day coastline is about 1.5 kilometers south of Tsumura, which is another indication of how much the crust has risen since the time frame covered by the Enoshima Engi (roughly the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD).

(3) Since Eno was to the west, it must have the steep hills overlooking the present-day Saikai River, which was a tidal wetland at that time. That wetland was probably the location of Hatsukuhisawa ("Swamp Where the Dragon First Began to Devour People").

(4) The Japanese version refers to the 水門 (water gate) as 湊 (boat-landing or harbor), glossed as みなと (minato).


Chinese transcription
 Translation
谷前有女(1)長者、生十六人之子、為毒龍被 噉食乎。於茲長者咽愁苦之思、辞旧宅遷住西里、名長者塚。
 A village elder (1) lived at the base of the valley. He had 16 children, all of whom were swallowed by the poisonous dragon. Grieving and anguishing, he left his old home to move to a location to the west, which was then called "Elder's Mound."

Notes/Comments

(1) Although the Chinese text refers to a "female village elder," the Japanese text merely refers to a "village elder" who had borne 16 children. The version of the story in the 江島大草紙 (quoted in 江島考, pg. 43), reads  時ニ長者アリ十六人ノ子ヲ育フ、皆悪龍ノ為ニ呑レヌ。"At that time there was a village elder who had raised 16 children, all of whom were devoured by the evil dragon." It is not clear whether the village elder was male or female. There may be some corruption of the text here.

The people of the locality are forced to move.
Chinese transcription
 Translation
悪龍漸遍村里、呑食人児之間、邑里之人民怖畏 捨離住所移越他所、世人此所云子死越。
 The evil dragon then spread out through the villages (1), swallowing and devouring children. Terrified, the villagers forsook their homes to move elsewhere. The people of that time named the new location Koshigoe (2) (3).  

Notes/Comments

(1) The corresponding passage in the Japanese version reads 龍邑里にみちて(満ちて)人をのむ事やまず (literally, "the dragon filled the villages, constantly swallowing people," which is another indication that the dragon was amorphous (i.e., like flood waters).

(2) Koshigoe may be translated as "Place to Which the Village Was Relocated After the Children Died." Koshigoe still exists. It is high ground on the mainland, just west of the valley in which Tsumura was located. See this map of the area during the Kofun era (300-710 AD) for details.

(3) This passage is a clear indication that the "dragon" is a deification of the flood waters of the river. The action in the narrative takes place in a tiny area. The distance from Tsumura to Koshigoe, for example, is less than a kilometer. If the "dragon" was, in the minds of the local inhabitants, a supernatural being with supernatural powers, then moving their village a short distance would not allow them to escape the destruction it caused. However, if the "dragon" was merely a deification of the power of the water of the river over their lives, then moving a short distance to higher ground would put them safely out of harm's way. See also footnote 5 here.


Chinese transcription
 Translation
龍噉人、既及八箇國、被呑親者子悲、被呑子者 親悲、村南村北(1)哭声不絶、児別母、夫別妻。
 By this time the dragon's swallowing of people had taken place throughout the eight lands [of the Kanto region in Eastern Japan]. Children whose parents had been swallowed grieved, and parents whose children had been swallowed lamented. The sounds of weeping and wailing continued without ceasing throughout the villages. Children were left without mothers and husbands without wives.

Notes/Comments

(1) The same phrase (村南村北) is used in a similar story in the Heikeimonogatari (平家物語) about a multi-headed/tailed great snake (大蛇) that ate children. See 平家物語（龍 谷大学本）巻第十一 (chapter 11). Also see Genpei seisuiki (源平盛衰記), where the phrase is used in a different context. 
The people decide to offer a human sacrifice.
Chinese transcription
 Translation
爰八箇國之貴賎衆人相（儀）議、以児周備毒龍 之贄。凡貴賤男女啼哭之聲不断絶。
 Thereupon, the people of the eight lands, high-born and low-born, came together to discuss what to do. It was decided to offer a [female] child in sacrifice to the dragon. The wailing and lamentations of the people, high-born and low-born, continued without ceasing.

Notes/Comments

(1)  Japanese legends relate numerous stories of multi-headed dragons and snakes that devour maidens.

Human sacrifice to a river is mentioned occasionally in ancient Japanese texts. The Nihongi contains one story about such a sacrifice (Aston I, pgs. 281-2). It concerns a scheme to prevent the overflowing of the Northern River by constructing the Mamuta embankment.

At the time, there were two parts of the construction which gave way and could not be stopped up. Then the emperor had a dream in which he was admonished by a God, saying: — "There is a man of Musashi named Koha-kubi and a man of Kahachi named Koromo no Ko, the Muraji of Mamuta. Let these two men be sacrificed to the River God, and thou wilt surely be enabled to close the gaps." So he sought for these two men, and having found them, sacrificed them to the River-God.

 Another example, preserved in a legend from Kitamoto in Saitama Prefecture in the Kanto region, is described here (clicking on the link will download a .pdf file). It is about Araibashi (荒井橋), a local bridge that was frequently destroyed by a river. Ultimately, the local people decided to sacrifice a maiden to the river by tying her to a bridge support.

In the incident described by Kokei, the inhabitants confer and deliberately sacrifice a maiden to pacify the flood-dragon. This episode bears some resemblance to the Chinese story Liji Zhan She (李寄斬蛇) in the Sou Shen Ji (搜神記), which was composed by Gan Bao (干寶) ca. 300 AD. A modern version of this motif is here.


End of the translation of Segment 1.


Segment 1 of the Chinese text, which corresponds to Scroll 1 of the Japanese version, has described the plight of the inhabitants of the low hills around Enoshima due to flooding caused by the dragon. Its function is to set the stage for the resolution of their problem — the descent of a savior, the goddess Benzaiten, accompanied by spectacular terrestrial and aerial phenomena — is covered in Segment 2 of the Chinese text, which corresponds to Scroll 2 of the Japanese version.


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