Writing Effectively Online: How to Compose Hypertext by Alysson Troffer (alysson@mac.com) August 2000
	Expanded Table of Contents
	My purpose: To help you quickly grasp hypertext concepts in order to write effectively online. The theory and practical tips offered here explain how to compose high-quality hypertext that readers will find easy to read and navigate. The focus here is online textual content, not Web page design. Two topics ("Why create links?" and "What style of writing works online?") provide most of the practical tips and examples on writing effectively online.
	* Introduction * What is hypertext? Ideal Uses for Hypertext Hypertext Usability to Measure Effectiveness Definitions of Hypertext, Hypermedia, and Multimedia * How do hypertext documents differ from print documents? Screen Reading Problems Differences in Organization Hypertext Reconfigures Text, Reader, and Writer * How does hypertext authoring differ from print authoring? Hypertext Requires Its Own Rhetoric New Skills for Hypertext Writers New Strategies Since Hypertext Structures Cannot Be Easily Imagined * How can hypertext documents be organized? Organizing by Hierarchy Organizing by Web Organizing by Sequence Organizing by Grid Choosing the Best Organizational Strategy Creating Meaningful Metaphors * Why create links? General Linking Strategies Link Density Issues and Tips Tips for Writing Link Text * What style of writing works online? Create Short, Self-Contained Topics Chunk the Text Keep Paragraphs Short Write Simply and Directly Rethink Notions of Transitional, Linear Writing Apply a Consistent, Transparent Style Make the Text Scannable Ensure Accurate Reading Quick Online Writing Tips Common Pitfalls For more information about writing online: * Check out my references for this paper * Review my annotated list of Web and print resources
	Introduction Writers making the transition from print to online media are finding online authoring to be vastly different. According to William Horton (1994), "For many writers, it is not just a change of technique but of professional and personal identity as they must learn new skills, take on new roles, and redefine careers" (p. 400). If you are making this transition from print to online media, this paper is for you. All too often, we are told to create a Web site but are given little or no instruction as to how hypertext can be best implemented. This paper can help you get up to speed quickly without needing to read a broad range of material on the subject, which can be very time consuming. To help you successfully make the transition from print to online writing, this paper: * Focuses on one new skill, that of composing effective hypertext Specifically, I address nonfiction hypertext and the elements that comprise effective writing in this genre. In addition, I concentrate on the textual component of hypertext, since hypertext consists of text and at the very least, simple graphics. * Offers the synthesized advice of both hypertext practitioners and theorists Theory and practice should inform each other, not exist as mutually exclusive entities, which sometimes happens in academia and business. * Attempts to demonstrate the principles of effective hypertext I apply these principles by presenting this paper in a hypertext structure called a cross-referenced hierarchy. I also break up my text into bulleted lists wherever possible and craft short paragraphs and sentences. * Provides both good and bad examples of hypertext writing Jakob Nielsen (1995) says that students might someday learn how to write effective hypertext just as they do linear essays. For now, he suggests, they should study the authoring principles in other writers' hypertexts and emulate those they like. The authoring principles and style guidelines I prefer are presented in this paper. Keep in mind that online writing is an emerging field. These principles and guidelines will evolve as we learn more.
	What is hypertext? Ideal Uses for Hypertext Hypertext Usability to Measure Effectiveness Definitions of Hypertext, Hypermedia, and Multimedia Major features of hypertext include the following: * Hypertext consists of interlinked pieces of text or other information stored electronically. Each unit of information is called a module, node, or topic, and might have pointers or links to other units. An entire hypertext structure forms a network of topics and links. In this paper, I use the term "topic" to denote each unit of information. * Hypertext is nonlinear. Through navigating links, readers can jump around your document as they wish. In effect, no single order determines the sequence of information to be read. * Hypertext gives readers more control over online documents than print documents. Hypertext presents several different options to the reader. When reading the text, each reader decides which option to follow (Nielsen, 1995). Readers move through hypertext by an activity called browsing or navigating, both of which emphasize how readers must actively determine their path through the network. According to Jakob Nielsen (1995), "true hypertext should . . . make users feel that they can move freely through the information, according to their own needs" (p. 4). * Hypertext can easily disorient readers. Context is often lost in hypertext documents. Readers can become disoriented and lose track of their location within a document. To reduce the likelihood of reader disorientation, provide contextual cues to help readers more easily navigate your document. For instance, by writing effective link text, you can help readers understand where the links lead without clicking on them.
	Ideal Uses for Hypertext According to Jakob Nielsen (1995), not all applications of hypertext are appropriate. He offers the following three golden rules (p. 67) to help you determine if a hypertext structure is suitable: * There is a large body of information organized into numerous fragments. * These fragments relate to each other. * Readers need only a small fraction of this information at any time. William Horton (1994) recommends putting a document online "only if the benefits of having the document online exceed the cost incurred in putting it online–for you and for the user" (p. 5). The following applications are ideal for hypertext: * General or specialized reference material For instance, computer documentation works well online. Task-oriented computer users do not want to read an entire manual but only relevant sections as needed (Nielsen, 1995). They typically turn to online documents for quick answers to their questions. * Any other material that can be chunked into short, self-contained topics Most online readers are goal-oriented and seeking specific information. By chunking your material into topics and labeling them with precise headings or subheadings, you aid online readers who tend to scan text searching for this information. For instance, an online newspaper or magazine article can provide the essential details of an event in the primary text. Links can lead to supplementary details or in-depth background information for those readers who want more. Precise headings clearly identify the content contained under each link. Note: Just because a document is suitable for this medium does not guarantee that the document will be effective. Writers still need to consider how to make that document usable for its readers.
	Hypertext Usability to Measure Effectiveness One way to determine the effectiveness of hypertext is to evaluate its usability with actual readers. Jakob Nielsen (1995) offers five parameters of hypertext usability (pp. 283-284) that writers should consider. An effective hypertext is: * Easy to learn When a hypertext is easy to learn, readers quickly understand its navigation options and other basic commands to locate information. They also can easily learn the basic structure of the hypertext network. Moreover, each topic in the network contains information that is easy to read. * Efficient to use When a hypertext is efficient to use, readers can find information quickly, or at least soon discover that what they seek in not present in the network. Also, when readers arrive at a topic, they can quickly orient themselves and understand its meaning as it relates to their point of departure. * Easy to remember When a hypertext is easy to remember, readers can return after some time away and still recall its general structure. In other words, they can still find their way around the network. They can also recognize landmark topics and special conventions used for these topics as well as links. * Nearly error-free When readers experience few errors with a hypertext, they rarely follow a link only to find they did not really want to go there. Even if readers do erroneously follow a link, they can easily return to their previous location. In addition, readers can easily return to any previous location if they decide to abandon some lengthy digression. * Pleasant to use When a hypertext is pleasant to use, readers are subjectively satisfied with using the network. They are rarely frustrated or disappointed when following links. Moreover, rather than feeling constrained, they feel in control and that they can freely traverse the network.
	Definitions of Hypertext, Hypermedia, and Multimedia According to the American Heritage Dictionary, "hypertext" is defined as "a computer-based text retrieval system that enables the user to provide access to or gain information related to a particular text." This definition of hypertext implies a text-only system. At least two online writing experts have different views: * Jakob Nielsen (1995) prefers using the term "hypertext" for systems that include other media such as graphics, video, sound, and animation. He uses the terms "hypertext" and "hypermedia" interchangeably to denote such systems. * William Horton (1994) uses the term "hypertext" for topics only consisting of text and simple graphics. He reserves the term "hypermedia" for topics that contain text as well as complex graphics and other media. Horton defines a related term, "multimedia," as a mixture of these media, the elements of which are usually presented in a linear sequence.
	How do hypertext documents differ from print documents? Screen Reading Problems Differences in Organization Hypertext Reconfigures Text, Reader, and Writer Hypertext differs from print documents in the following ways: * Hypertext is displayed on a computer screen while print documents are provided in a hardcopy format. Research suggests that screen displays can create reading problems, which can greatly affect rhetorical issues surrounding the design of online documents. * Hypertext supports nonlinear reading while print documents are designed to be read linearly. Readers can still jump around print documents, and even skip sections or chapters. Nonetheless, there is still one unique, predetermined sequence of pages to be read. With hypertext, readers choose which sequence of topics to follow. In essence, they create their own version of the text. Some argue that due to its nonlinear structure, hypertext reconfigures the roles of text, reader, and writer. * Information in each medium is conveyed differently to its readers. As Henrietta N. Shirk (1991) states, "Paper-based information is communicated through a single, continuous, and logical development of well-supported thought sequences. In hypertextual communication, information is arranged like a superbly cross-indexed encyclopedia" (p. 191). Such divergent styles of presentation demand different organizational strategies.
	Screen Reading Problems Studies show that reading from a computer screen is about 30% slower than reading from paper (Nielsen, 1995, p. 154). Screen reading presents difficulties for the following reasons: * Screen resolution is low as compared to printed material. * Screen glare can impair reading. * Letters on a computer screen appear coarse to the eye. Partly due to this problem, Jakob Nielsen states, Web users do not read long blocks of text carefully or thoroughly (Allstetter, 1998). "Screen resolution is too low, too coarse, so the letters don't feel smooth to the eye," he says. "That slows down the eye when it tries to read the text." * Screen reading can cause eyestrain. Since screens are smaller, granier, and more glaring than hardcopy, reading online can cause eyestrain (Horton, 1994, p. 11). * Processing text online requires spatial and relational processing abilities. Thus, designers need to consider rhetorical issues differently than they would for conventional texts (Wenger & Payne, 1996). * Screen size can be smaller than a page of printed material. * Desktop computers are not portable and can be less convenient to use than printed material. * All too often, documents that were never designed for the screen are simply dumped online. This common pitfall can make documents unreadable and inaccessible to readers (Schriver, 1997).
	Differences in Organization Organization is as important in hypertext as in print documents, both rhetorically and practically. However, screen reading problems and the nonlinear nature of hypertext lead to some notable organizational differences, including the following: * The connections between online topics are more likely to be associative, not syllogistic. As John M. Slatin (1990) states, "the logical connections between elements are primarily associative, not syllogistic, as in conventional text" (p. 876). (In syllogism, reasoning is deductive and progresses from the general to the specific.) As a result, organizing hypertext for the reader becomes more difficult. Nonetheless, the hypertext writer has various organizational strategies to choose from to create an effective structure. Whatever the structure, writers can help readers identify organizational patterns within their network of topics using metaphors, links, and buttons. * Readers cannot easily envision the structure of hypertext documents. Various limitations make it difficult for online readers to see how the topics of a hypertext document are related to each other. Limitations such as small screen size and the absence of a physical artifact to reveal the document's general dimensions contribute to this problem. So does the reader's inability to view more than one screen at a time. * Readers are more likely to become "lost in cyberspace" if they cannot envision hypertext document structures. When readers become disoriented, they might need to retrace their steps or move forward with no clear idea of where they are going. To help prevent reader disorientation, online writers need to implement new strategies to help readers envision the structure of their documents. * Online readers can also become disoriented when they traverse links and follow a nonlinear path through your document. An effective linking strategy supports a document structure that is obvious and easy to navigate, both of which help prevent reader disorientation. Although hypertext can be structured in a linear hierarchy, it can also present "an intricate, open web of interrelated information, both intertextual and interactive, as reader and writer work together to create the text" (Tovey, 1998). Information in hypertext can even be organized in what Henrietta N. Shirk (1991) calls "gigantic interrelated webs" (p. 191). The potential for such open structures leads to the metaphor of free association, suggesting that anything that can be linked should be linked. However, hypertext may be driven by an organizational metaphor and not be as open to free associations as many often imply (Tovey). * A sound organizational structure is especially important online. On the World Wide Web, organization is a key element in a person's or an organization's presence or ethos. If a hypertext presents an illogical structure or inconsistent design, readers can perceive a lack of credibility (Hunt, 1996).
	Hypertext Reconfigures Text, Reader, and Writer Some theorists claim that hypertext reconfigures the constructs of text, reader, and writer. The following arguments support this claim: * Without the boundaries imposed by print, hypertext creates an open, unconfined text containing both intra- and intertextual connections. According to George P. Landow (1992), it is the "seemingly endless" links that break down these boundaries and reconfigure the constructs of text, reader, and writer. * Readers write the text themselves. Due to the nonlinear, interactive nature of hypertext, "readers cannot avoid writing the text itself, since every choice they make is an act of writing" (Bolter, 1991). * Through traversing hypertext links, readers control the organization of the material. However, as Karen Schriver (1997) points out, "increased freedom for readers to integrate information in their own preferred order may be beneficial, but only if readers are skillful at selecting their information order" (p. 379). * The hypertext writer has less authority over the text. As Johnson-Eilola (1997) states: "Authors lose their control over the specific path followed by the reader as the text becomes a networked hypertext" (p. 78-79). In addition, the writer of hypertext is "more multivocal, less centered, and less autonomous" (Tovey, 1998). * The distinction between writer and reader becomes blurred. As Johnson-Eilola (1997) explains, "Technology apparently breaks down the distinction between writer and reader, especially the commonsense notions of these roles as polar opposites" (p. 143). This blurring distances the hypertext writer from both the text and the reader and bolsters the reconfiguration of these three elements.
	How does hypertext authoring differ from print authoring? Hypertext Requires Its Own Rhetoric New Skills for Hypertext Writers New Strategies Since Hypertext Structures Cannot Be Easily Imagined Hypertext writing is an entirely new practice for those who only learned how to compose linear reports such as essays and term papers. Hypertext writers need to develop new skills and strategies to help them create reader-friendly, usable documents. According to Kathleen McCabe (1997), if hypertext writers do not understand the rhetorical principles behind successful hypertext authoring, the documents they create will not reach their communication potential. Because of the differences between hypertext and print authoring, some even argue that hypertext requires its own rhetoric. Some differences between hypertext and print authoring include the following: * Hypertext authoring requires a different understanding of the writer's role and authority over the text. One challenge for hypertext writers becomes rethinking their authority over the text. Instead of creating a singular, linear line of logical thought or one stream of information, they must anticipate various paths the reader might take. Because hypertext offers many alternatives for readers to explore, it essentially "destroys the authority of the author to determine how readers should be introduced to a topic" (Nielsen, 1995, p. 321). For readers, this feature is a great advantage since they can explore the information as they see fit. For writers, their task becomes "providing opportunities for readers rather than ordering them around" (p. 321). Nonetheless, these opportunities should not be endless. Writers must still provide certain priorities for readers and point them in relevant directions (Nielsen, 1995). * Hypertext authoring requires a careful analysis of the document's purpose in ways different than in print. Some argue that most people visit the Web to seek information, not to read grandiloquent prose (Horton, 1994; Mitternight, 1998). If true, this point suggests that the primary purpose of most Web documents is to inform readers. Other purposes can be to create literary prose, to express, and to persuade. According to Jakob Nielsen, Web users are very impatient and goal-driven. They tend to scan sites, selecting "the little snippets" that appeal to them (Allstetter, 1998). This behavior suggests that the document's purpose might be not only to inform readers, but to do so as quickly as possible. To create an appealing, informative Web site, Nielsen suggests starting with the users. "That may sound like obvious advice, but most people don't follow it. Instead, they look at the Web as an opportunity to accomplish some goal of their organization" (Allstetter, 1998). This strategy only goes so far. In the end, users lose because such sites are not geared to their needs. * Hypertext authoring also requires a careful analysis of audience in ways different than in print. Henrietta N. Shirk (1991) recommends discarding the old adage of identifying primary and secondary audiences, and even the dualistic paradigm of novice and expert. In her view, both are now simplistic and outdated since hypertext can efficiently and effectively address the needs of multileveled audiences. Through its rich linking mechanisms, hypertext can reach an "unlimited array of audiences" (p. 192) For the hypertext writer, what evolves then is a "more sophisticated and sensitive notion of audience awareness." This notion involves a heightened awareness of both the learning experiences and the requirements of various audiences (Shirk, p. 193). William Horton (1994) suggests that hypertext writers take care in what they assume about their readers. For instance, in terms of the degree of interest, "the user may be totally absorbed in the subject matter of the topic, slightly interested, frustrated beyond rational thought, or bored to tears" (p. 105). * Hypertext writers need to chunk their material. According to Nielsen (1995), "the key thing to remember for hypertext authoring is modularize, modularize, modularize" (p. 309). Shirk (1991) uses the term "chunking" to refer to this strategy of breaking down information into its smallest manageable components. In some instances, chunking merely means breaking up longer paragraphs into shorter ones. This strategy provides more white space and makes screen reading more palatable. * Hypertext writers must rethink the traditional notions of paragraph flow and organization. According to Shirk (1991), these notions, which are required in quality paper text, simply do not apply in hypertext. Transitions are instead orchestrated by associative links, which allow readers "to create their own transitions as they move among pieces of information" (p. 195). Others argue that hypertext actually requires more transitions between topics. The additional context such material provides helps to orient readers who can jump around your document or enter various topics at different points. * Document design issues are even more important online than in conventional texts (McCabe, 1997). In creating online texts, the challenge becomes achieving functionality while maintaining strong aesthetics (Kolosseus, Bauer, & Bernhardt, 1995).
	Hypertext Requires Its Own Rhetoric Many have argued that hypertext is a communication medium that requires its own rhetoric. According to Karen Schriver (1997), the conventions of such a rhetoric are currently under construction. As a result, document designers are "groping through the design space and inventing as we go" (p. 379). The following views support the notion that hypertext requires its own rhetoric: * Henrietta N. Shirk (1991) argues for a special set of rhetorical principles for evaluating the effectiveness of hypertext. This rhetoric should include: * A description of how various cognitive structures effectively convey information and rules for applying these structures * Principles of good screen design * The creation of meaningful metaphors within electronic spaces * Gary Heba (1997) has defined a rhetoric of multimedia communication called "HyperRhetoric" that includes hypertext as one of its rhetorical elements. He writes: "Traditional models and approaches to written communication are inadequate for explaining the rhetorical phenomenon of multimedia and for preparing students to become multimedia literate because these models do not adequately describe the rhetorical space of electronic documents" (p. 21). Print writing occupies the rhetorical space of pages while multimedia occupies the space of "screens, speakers, keyboards, mice, and headsets." The traditional models and approaches do not help us learn to "produce linked screens of virtual discourse" that are necessary in this electronic space (p. 21). * Kathleen McCabe (1997) states that hypertext ultimately requires its own rhetoric because the complexity involved in writing hypertext is much greater than writing traditional text. She argues that whether a writer composes for paper or the screen, many rhetorical issues–the appropriateness of the medium, audience analysis, purpose, organization, and document design–are the same. Nonetheless, in addressing these issues, the hypertext writer still finds more differences than similarities. Hypertext ultimately requires its own rhetoric because the complexity of the task is much greater online than in print. In essence, hypertext writers "are not just writing but are more accurately designing–that is, creating logical nodes of information, connecting those nodes, constructing an interface, and programming" (McCabe, 1997). They are "designers who work toward a synthesis of visual and verbal rhetoric" (Kolosseus, Bauer, & Bernhardt, 1995, p. 80). * Tovey (1998) says a major reason for rhetorical differences between online and print documents is that screen displays can create reading problems. Screen reading problems require thoughtful design decisions (Haas, 1989). Thus, designers need to consider rhetorical issues differently than they would for conventional texts.
	New Skills for Hypertext Writers Gregory Wickliff and Janice Tovey (1995) state that students of hypertext "must develop the same physical and cognitive skills that writing paper texts require: research, analysis, and synthesis" (p. 51). Nonetheless, as William Horton (1994) contends, creating online documents demands new knowledge and skills, in effect, a new literacy. This new literacy is necessary because writers need to learn how to incorporate new media within their online documents. As Gary Heba (1997) explains, students need to learn "how to compose and integrate print, video, and audio information into a usable multimedia product–that is, they need to become multimedia literate, capable of producing and reproducing information in online environments" (p. 20). Literacy now means being able to communicate effectively using: * More visual media (charts, photographs, drawings) * Multiple media (animation, video, and sound) * Dynamic media (moving pictures and sound) * Mixes of media (combining various media) * Nonlinear media (hypertext) (Horton, 1994, p. 401) Developing nonlinear media (hypertext) skills involves learning how to create effective links. It also involves learning online writing techniques, such as keeping words to a minimum, writing in active voice, and keeping sentence structure simple (Smith, 1998). In addition, writers must develop new strategies to help readers envision the structure of their hypertext documents. Becoming multimedia literate and learning effective Web page design skills helps writers integrate these elements in order to effectively present information to readers.
	New Strategies Since Hypertext Structures Cannot Be Easily Imagined Readers can kinesthetically determine where they are within print documents because "the physical artifact instantly reveals the work's general dimensions" (Bernstein, 1995, p. 44). With hypertext documents, readers cannot easily imagine either the size or complexity of the entire document. This inability to perceive an entire document has several implications for hypertext authoring. As a hypertext writer, you should: * Cue readers to help them determine where they are within a document at any given moment. Readers are properly oriented in your document when they can identify the content presented, the location of the content within the larger body of information, and the navigation options. The effective use of labels (as in page titles, headings, and subheadings) can help readers remain oriented in your document. Succinct but precise labels with the most important words appearing first are ideal. * Provide organizational cues (such as tables of contents, headings, and indexes). These devices work toward promoting a reader-friendly space. They also require that you learn and apply new skills to create a quality product. Learning effective Web page design skills helps you integrate these elements into a cohesive whole. * Anticipate probable paths readers might follow and structure the document with the reader's goals in mind. Which associations would benefit your readers? Let your readers' needs, expectations, and interests guide your link choices. * Provide clearly worded links so readers can easily move about the hypertext and even exit gracefully. Readers use links as guideposts in scanning and navigating your document, so take full advantage of them and write your links accordingly. Effective links also create adequate context for readers and help prevent reader disorientation. * Apply consistent visual design strategies throughout the hypertext. A hypertext document can achieve visual consistency, for instance, through the consistent placement of navigation links, and the use of color and icons to identify different sections.
	How can hypertext documents be organized? Organizing by Hierarchy Organizing by Web Organizing by Sequence Organizing by Grid Choosing the Best Organizational Strategy Creating Meaningful Metaphors Organization concerns how information is divided into separate topics, and determines the order in which they are presented and the connections among them. As William Horton (1994) states, "For paper documents, organization determines where information goes; for online documents, it determines when it appears as well" (p. 159). The organizational strategies suggested below offer ways to make a hypertext's organization apparent. Not any one of these strategies is best for all possible applications. However, by considering the audience and purpose of the hypertext, you can choose the proper strategy. Standard organizational strategies Horton (1994) recommends the following strategies for organizing hypertext documents (pp. 160-175). Combinations of these structures can also work well online. * Organizing by hierarchy Readers feel comfortable with this strategy because many print texts are organized in this manner. * Organizing by Web Web structures range from a pure Web (in which every topic is linked to every other topic) to a partial Web (in which only a subset of possible connections are made). * Organizing by sequence A sequential organization suggests a linear-based structure, in which topics are presented in a prescribed order. * Organizing by grid The grid structure is ideal for topic-based documents when each topic has the same subtopics. Less common organizational strategies * Organizing by metaphor When used appropriately, metaphors can make hypertexts easier to learn and navigate. * Organizing by task Technical documentation is ideal for this structure. Documents can be organized based on how a user plans to use a product. * Mirroring the organization of the subject This strategy suggests a topic-based structure in which a subject is broken down into logical categories. * Organizing as a print document For lengthy documents, this strategy most often results in a hierarchical structure with parts divided into chapters and chapters divided into sections and subsections. * Mapping general questions to specific answers This paper is organized using the strategy of asking and answering questions in combination with a cross-referenced hierarchy.
	Organizing by Hierarchy In a hypertext document organized by hierarchy, high-level generalities and overviews offer a preview of what lies below. Levels within hierarchies can be based on importance, frequency of use, or complexity. Hierarchical organizations vary considerably from symmetrical tree structures to freeform structures. In a hierarchy with cross-references, readers can jump to relevant but organizationally distant topics (Horton, 1994). A typical technical book is ideally suited for this structure. Some benefits of organizing by hierarchy include the following: * Readers are comfortable with this structure because many print texts are organized this way. * Readers find this structure easier to learn than others. Readers can even more accurately understand a document's structure through a hierarchical list of topics than through an alphabetical index (Horton, 1994). * Many subjects lend themselves to this structure. * The top level of the hierarchy (and one or more levels below) can serve as a clickable table of contents. Readers can repeatedly return to this top level to review the available topics. This review helps readers envision the entire document structure and remain sufficiently oriented within the document.
	Organizing by Web In a hypertext document organized by Web, any topic can be linked to any other topic. There are no restrictions on the patterns of connections among topics. In this freeform organization, the full associative power of hypertext can be realized. According to William Horton (1994), this structure "promotes the kind of exploration that occurs during the development of new ideas" (p. 173). On the opposite ends of the "organizing by Web" continuum are: * The pure Web In a pure Web, every topic is directly linked to every other topic. Horton (1994) says this structure poses several problems. It may merely propagate the writer's confusion, require too much overhead in terms of storage space and maintenance, and present too many choices to the reader. Horton (1994) states, "In all but the smallest documents, the complete Web is impractical for online documents" (p. 174). * The partial Web In a partial Web, not all connections between topics are made. Most often, these structures are sparse, linking each topic to just a few other topics. The most common form is the hierarchy with cross-references, a structure that fits in both the hierarchy and Web categories. A partial Web works well for a collection of randomly related topics.
	Organizing by Sequence A sequential organization presents the topics of an online document in a prescribed order. Readers only have the choice of moving forward or backward. In this pattern, "word follows word, step by step, paragraph after paragraph, page by page" (Horton, 1994, p. 160). As the structure of most print texts, a sequential organization is also suitable for: * Teacher-directed learning * Step-by step instructions * Tutorials * Passive demonstrations * Detailed arguments
	Organizing by Grid In a grid structure, topics are arranged in rows and columns, which is a familiar and easily accessible matrix. Each topic has a unique address: the combination of its row and column positions (Horton, 1994). The classic grid presents information along these two dimensions as a table. However, not all grids resemble tables. Consider the following applications for organizing by grid: * A reference manual for a computer software program For every user command, there are headings such as Purpose, Format, Options, and Examples. These headings appear on each page. Reading all information about a single command is like reading across a row. * A troubleshooting guide that lists common error messages and instructions for dealing with them For every error message, the following headings are displayed: Cause, Action, Technical Notes, and See Also. All information about a single error message is contained in a row or within a single page. * A decision tree to help readers make decisions about tasks they need to perform For every task readers can perform, the prerequisites and high-level actions they need to take are listed. Links lead to additional information about these actions (such as detailed step-by-step instructions). The grid is an ideal structure for topic-based documents when each topic has the same subtopics.
	Choosing the Best Organizational Strategy Ultimately, your goal is to make your document structure simple and easy to navigate. The following guidelines can help you achieve this goal by choosing the best organizational strategy for your document. * Organize your document according to a simple and meaningful pattern. Even if the organization of your document must be relatively complex, it should still appear simple to readers. * Follow the three-click rule whenever possible. If readers must follow more than three links to find needed information, they might become confused or annoyed, and even abandon their search. * Define your audience's skill level and interests as an important first step when deciding which structure to use. For William Horton (1994), selecting the right structure for your reader involves "trading expressive power for predictability" (p. 175) as follows: * To expert readers and creative writers, a simple and predictable structure can seem too restrictive. For instance, a Web-based structure might be more appropriate than a sequential one for these readers. * To novices or occasional users, an expressive or more complicated structure can seem too confusing. In this case, a sequential structure or a cross-referenced hierarchy would work best. * Match the document's organization to its intended purpose. Horton (1994) recommends the following guidelines: * For learning, give readers a sequential path with possible side trips. * For browsing, organize using a hierarchy with cross references. * For fact-finding, organization does not matter. Just make it quick. (p. 176) * Choose well-worded links that anticipate readers' needs. When readers must follow a certain sequence through your content (for example, when they must perform tasks in sequential order), you will want to limit their choices or at least guide them with additional explanatory text. Except for such cases, your goal is to provide readers with opportunities, not to order them around. However, you must still set priorities in your document and point your readers in relevant directions. Well-worded links provide sufficient context so readers can remain properly oriented in your document. Note: Kathleen McCabe (1997) states that the rhetorical elements of both audience and purpose ultimately determine how much control to give readers. Content obviously plays an important role as well.
	Creating Meaningful Metaphors Metaphors help writers combine the various elements of organization and effective screen design into a meaningful whole (Shirk, 1991). Henrietta N. Shirk (1991) claims that the most successful hypertexts have an underlying metaphor, which draws its readers into the intellectual environment created by interacting with the computer. Whenever possible, visual and audio effects should support the metaphor. William Horton (1994) recommends that "if there is a widely known schema (book, journal, TV), then use it. If not, do not force a metaphor on the user" (p. 205). Readers can find contrived metaphors both trite and annoying. Consider the following as possible metaphors for hypertext documents: * Book * Spatial/travel * Control panel * Photo album * Television * Games * Showroom * Magazine
	Why create links? General Linking Strategies Link Density Issues and Tips Tips for Writing Link Text Links enable readers to navigate your hypertext document and jump to related topics with a single mouse click. Links are one of the great benefits of reading online because they allow readers to decide their path through online information. Links can also lead to unending aggravation. Especially annoying are mystery links that leave readers guessing as to the nature and value of the linked material. Many readers are left wandering aimlessly like travelers without an itinerary, unable to reach any purposeful destination. By adopting effective linking strategies and providing adequate context for links, hypertext writers can help prevent this problem of reader disorientation or "wayfinding" that so many of us experience. Readers find two types of links in online documents: * Navigational Navigational links connect the topics of a hypertext network and serve as the backbone of the interface between reader and computer. This "user interface" allows readers to find their way through the topics. * Associative Associative links are intended to enrich the document's content. Links can point to content with varying degrees of relevance to the original topic. Linked content can offer a parallel theme, digress but still be related, or provide seemingly unrelated material. Use associative links to: * Cross-reference related material * Provide detailed background information * Annotate an argument with supporting detail or a definition of terms * Offer analogies to clarify relationships among disparate pieces of information * Provide instructive or ironic insights * Offer footnotes or references * Allow one-click access to other documents or Web sites
	General Linking Strategies * Use a clickable table of contents to organize your material. A table of contents allows you to clarify the internal relationships among topics. It also allows the reader to repeatedly review the document's overall structure and available topics. This review helps readers retain proper orientation within your document. According to Mark Bernstein (1991), "The centripetal tendencies of central organizing nodes (topics) are balanced by the centrifugal force of the reader’s curiosity" (p. 44). Thus, when readers browse through a dense hypertext network, they "naturally" spend most of their time exploring the document’s periphery. Tutorial and reference works in particular can exploit these forces by offering a rich array of connections (Bernstein, 1991). Example: Clickable table of contents Great Outdoor Recreation Pages offers readers a detailed yet very usable clickable table of contents. It lists outdoor resources for people with disabilities by highlighting key words for the link text (such as Delaware Water Gap and Hiking at Oregon Dunes) and then briefly describing each resource. The links on the left of the screen serve as an additional table of contents for links under topics such as outdoor interests, discussion boards, and interacting with experts. * Provide substantive content, not merely a list of links to other sites. Patrick J. Lynch and Sarah Horton (1997) caution against creating Web pages that resemble tables of contents or resource bibliographies, neither of which can "replace real commentary, analysis, [nor] sustained rational argument" (p. 115). A well-organized, annotated list of links can increase the value of the document. However, the document should still offer substantive content beyond links. * Links should reinforce your message, not replace it. * Use lists of links instead of links embedded in the text, whenever possible. At least one study suggests that searching a list of links rather than a paragraph with embedded links reduces the processing demands of reading and link extraction (Kahn and Locatis, 1998). When you create a list of links, annotate each link so readers can decide which, if any, to traverse. Before & After example: Using a list of links Before: Links embedded in the text Our programs concentrate on species, forests, protected areas, marine and freshwaters; plus habitats affected by climate change such as polar regions. We also address the relationship between trade and the environment and the wider aspects of biodiversity assessment. After: Links presented in a bulleted list Our programs concentrate on: * Species * Forests * Protected areas * Marine * Freshwaters * Habitats affected by climate change such as polar regions   We also address: * The relationship between trade and the environment * Wider aspects of biodiversity assessment * Place external links in a section outside of the primary text. Consider putting most or all external links in their own section or page. This strategy gives readers one-click access to valuable resources while hopefully delaying their departure from your document. * Open a new browser window for links to external sites, if appropriate. This strategy makes it easier for readers to return to your document. You might consider using this strategy for external links embedded in your text. It might not be appropriate for a list of external links placed outside of the primary text. Sample code to open a new browser window In the following HTML code, TARGET="_blank" opens a new browser window when the reader clicks on the link for Denver Zoo Online. <A HREF="http://www.denverzoo.org/main.htm" TARGET="_blank">Denver Zoo Online</A>
	Link Density Issues and Tips Experts disagree about how many links an online document should contain. A document with a high-link density offers many links to readers. A document with a low-link density offers few. The following section summarizes the views of three groups of online writing experts concerning link density. I then offer a list of quick tips concerning this issue. * Mark Bernstein (1991) advocates a plentiful but thoughtful use of links, guided by what the rhetorical situation allows. Bernstein disagrees with the strategy of restricting the role of links in online documents, as others have advocated. He argues that reader disorientation arises from bad writing, not from interlinking topics. As in any medium, he states, "hypertext may prove unwieldy and inexpressive when used without care and thought" (p. 42). In addition, Bernstein claims that no convincing evidence exists that interlinked information necessarily disorients the reader or that a sequential presentation prevents readers from getting lost. Thus, he advocates a form of hypertext that depends on "the tension between regimentation and richness, between predictability and excitement" (p. 41). To guide decisions about the number of links to provide and their placement, Bernstein recommends letting the rhetorical situation (especially the document's purpose and reader needs) dictate one's choices. For example, he recommends that you: * Reduce the availability of links when the document's goals are best met by constraining the reader's path. * Advertise certain links more often and more prominently than others when the goals are best met by enticing the reader to pursue certain topics more deeply. * Kushal Khan and Craig Locatis (1998), through their research on information retrieval using hypertext links, support the notion of using low-link density in a list format to produce the best overall results in search performance. In their study with actual users, Khan and Locatis show that low-link densities displayed in a list format produced the best overall search performance, in terms of search accuracy, search time, number of links explored, and search task prioritization. In the study, 64 high school juniors and seniors performed six searches of varying difficulty on one of four versions of a hypertext opinion piece on persuasion, subliminal suggestion, hypnosis, and brainwashing. Each version was organized hierarchically with either low- or high-density links displayed in either lists or paragraphs. (The high-density display presented six links whereas the low-density display presented only three.) The authors suggest the following explanations for students' poorer performance with high-link densities: * Raw probability Given more choices, students are simply more likely to make mistakes. * Increased cognitive load necessary for users to process more links When fewer links are displayed, cognitive load is reduced because searching and exploration are more focused. * Patrick J. Lynch and Sarah Horton (1997) recommend using links sparingly, if at all. Lynch and Horton, coauthors of the Yale C/AIM Web Style Guide, express concern about Web authors uncritically embracing hypertext linking. They write that "loose links can drive away an audience, dilute the site's message, confuse the reader with irrelevant digressions, and become a continuing maintenance headache for site authors and Webmasters" (p. 115). Though both navigational and associative links can elicit problems, they argue that associative links cause the most, mainly through their overuse or poor placement. The authors describe two fundamental design problems with associative links: * Links disrupt the narrative flow by inviting readers to go elsewhere. * Links can dump readers into unfamiliar territory with insufficient explanation due to their "apparent significance coupled with their lack of context" (p. 116). Readers assume links have some meaning but too often, links are ambiguous, and readers must follow them to discern their significance. Instead of enhancing the reader's understanding of a subject, a link may "send them to a foreign land without a guide" (p. 116). Link density tips The following tips reflect my own bias concerning link density. I lean toward the "less is more" approach. * Remember that every link is a maintenance issue. * Point most links within your own document or Web site. Why invite your readers to leave your site? They might never return. * Use a lower link density. Too many links can confuse readers with tangential digressions. You need to guide readers and filter their choices. Be aware, however, that displaying fewer links might lead to the need for more link layers. Too many link layers can lead to increased error rates and task completion times (Kahn & Locatis, 1998). * If you don't want to interrupt the reader at a certain point, don't put a link there. Not everything that can be linked should be linked. * Do provide some links to external resources. As Jakob Nielsen states: "Linking to material from outside your own site allows you to take advantage of what others on the Web have produced. If you can select the correct links, you can enhance your service thousands of times beyond what you have the capacity to deliver yourself" (Allstetter, 1998).
	Tips for Writing Link Text Online readers often experience disorientation or "wayfinding" when traversing links. By creating adequate context for links and writing effective link text, you can reduce the likelihood that this problem will occur. The following tips help to ensure that readers remain fully oriented and in control as they navigate your document (or go to other documents). * Write about your subject as if there were no links in the text. In other words, don't refer to the mechanism of the Web. By crafting text that would still read well if there were no links, you can also keep your online text from sounding choppy. Good examples: Link text weaved into the prose For a wide selection of books and fast delivery, visit Amazon.com. Amy Gahran publishes the Web-zine Contentious. Bad examples: Link text that refers to the mechanism of the Web Click here to buy books online. Amy Gahran has a Web site. * Choose meaningful words or phrases for your link text, as well as for the text surrounding that link. By simply scanning the text of your links, readers should be able to derive some meaning about their destination. Carefully chosen link text gives readers contextual cues concerning where each link leads. If possible, supply explanatory text before offering the actual descriptive link. Good example: Descriptive link text and preceding explanatory context A good place to learn about health issues is WebMd. Bad example: Less meaningful word chosen for link text There are lots of resources for health-conscious consumers. * Highlight key words for link text. Good example: Key words highlighted for link text If the stars and planets mesmerize you, check out Lowell Observatory. Bad example: Less important words highlighted for link text If the stars and planets mesmerize you, check out Lowell Observatory. * Choose an appropriate length for your link text. A full sentence is too long and difficult to read. One word might be too short. One to three words usually works best, as long as those words are context-rich. Good example: An appropriate length for link text Vegetarian recipes for health-conscious cooks Bad example: Too many words chosen for link text Vegetarian recipes for health-conscious cooks * Warn readers when a link might take them to an unexpected situation. For instance, warn readers when the link is external and takes them away from your site or to other documents. Icons or annotated text can serve as cues. However, if you word your links (and their surrounding text) with care, it will often be obvious to readers when a link will take them elsewhere. Also, let readers know when a link leads to an unusually large file. Provide the file size in parentheses. Good example: Cuing readers about large file size Pixel painting of Paris in Spring (50 KB)   Some "don'ts" to avoid * Don't over- or under-link. Choosing the right number of links is a balancing act. Use judgment and reader feedback to help find the proper balance. The topic "Link Density Issues and Tips" more fully addresses this guideline. * Don't repeat a link wherever the link text occurs. In general, once per topic is sufficient. Always, no more than once per paragraph. * If the page is short, don't link to other destinations on the same page. Readers expect links to take them to another page. If links keep them on the same page, readers can become disoriented. * Don't link entire sentences or long phrases. Underlined text is difficult to read on screen. Highlight a key word or phrase that best represents the content of the destination.
	What style of writing works online? Create Short, Self-Contained Topics Chunk the Text Keep Paragraphs Short Write Simply and Directly Rethink Notions of Transitional, Linear Writing Apply a Consistent, Transparent Style Make the Text Scannable Ensure Accurate Reading Quick Online Writing Tips Common Pitfalls Example: Effective online writing style Denver Zoo Online uses an effective online writing style. The content is divided into short, self-contained topics. Each topic addresses one main idea and is no longer than three screens of information. The text is concise and written using simple, direct language and a consistent, transparent style. This site also uses links effectively (and sparingly), and most links point within the site. To compose effective hypertext, consider the following writing style guidelines: * Apply with fervor the principles of clear writing while attending to the differences between online and print documents (Horton, 1994). Writers need to create short topics written in short paragraphs with simple language. According to Helen L. Mitternight (1998), "The online style is like writing on caffeine–there is no time for leisurely discourse" (p. 37). * Chunk the text. Chunking breaks up the text and provides sufficient white space. Through strategies such as restructuring narrative text into bulleted lists whenever possible, writers can improve the readability (and the scannability) of their hypertext. * Rethink traditional notions of transitional, linear writing. Some argue that transitional phrases and sentences in online documents add clutter and slow down the reader. Others contend that hypertext documents require more transitions to counter the loss of context inherent in this medium. * Use a consistent, transparent writing style. A chaotic style that screams for attention merely distracts readers from their goal of finding information quickly and painlessly. * Design hypertext to encourage and support online reading patterns. Most online readers are not primarily interested in reading. They typically go online for quick answers to their questions, scanning documents and traversing links to find those answers. This guideline suggests that you: * Create coherent, self-contained topics that will not be confusing if read out of order (to accommodate jumpy searching) * Make documents scannable (to help goal-oriented readers find the information they seek as quickly as possible) * Ensure accurate reading (to offset the legibility problems posed by screen reading) * Keep the content fresh. Hypertext is interactive because it can grow and change as new information is learned or in response to reader feedback. Recognize that no online writing is ever complete (Mitternight, 1998). One of Jakob Nielsen's deadly sins of Web design is outdated information. Think of yourself as a Web gardener, someone who prunes Web pages relentlessly. Besides attending to readers' needs, ongoing maintenance is a cheap way to enhance the content of a Web site (Allstetter, 1998).
	Create Short, Self-Contained Topics Because readers seldom read long passages online, hypertext writers must create short, self-contained topics that do not require any particular sequence to be understood. To create short, self-contained topics: * Write topics that address only one main idea. One sign of a clearly focused topic: it answers one question about one subject for one purpose. According to William Horton (1994), "The question may be general or specific, the subject may be concrete or abstract, and the purpose may be global or local–but all are clearly defined" (p. 104). One way to ensure coherence in a topic is to first write a single question that the topic is meant to answer. Then, judge whether the topic fully answers that question. * Keep length to a minimum. Horton (1994) warns that readers will not read more than three windows or screens of information to answer a question. Thus, he recommends that each topic contain only one-third to one-fifth of a paper page. To help keep length to a minimum, you can "cross-reference rather than include" (Horton, 1994). For instance, you need not explain each new term, concept, or acronym where it is introduced. Instead, provide this information via hypertext links. * Write, edit, and review topics in random order. This strategy helps to ensure that your topics can be read in any order and still be understood. * Use storyboards to create topics. Kathleen McCabe (1997) recommends using storyboards since the view of a hypertext document is narrowed to a single screen. This practice helps to ensure a suitable and accessible organization for readers. * Repeat contextual information as needed to counter loss of context. To counter the loss of context, repeat contextual information each place it is needed and provide links to related information. For instance, contextual information can explain where the topic fits within the larger body of information.
	Chunk the Text Chunking means breaking up the text so readers do not see a solid block of text (Smith & Drakeley, 1998). Text that has been chunked effectively should both stand alone and work well with the rest of the hypertext document (Mitternight, 1998). Chunked text: * Improves screen reading by giving the eyes a rest Due to the limitations of screen reading, chunking is especially important online. * Helps readers retrieve and process information more quickly and retain it longer Chunking coincides with the natural way the human mind functions while taking in new information and applying stored information to new situations (Shirk, 1991). For example, in controlled processes such as computer-based training, the mind can process only about three to four chunks of information at a time (Stillings et al, 1987). One way to take advantage of this feature of human cognition is to organize information into small, manageable pieces so they can be presented on a single screen (Shirk, 1991). Before & After example: Chunking text Before: Text that needs to be chunked Bouldermag.com's guide to restaurants in Boulder, Colorado offers helpful information to readers seeking a new dining experience. However, some of the restaurant descriptions present readers with a solid block of text. For instance, the guide's description for Antica Roma Ristorante & Bar presents one long paragraph with insufficient white space. This unbroken river of text makes reading difficult. After: Text that is appropriately chunked and labeled Antica Roma Ristorante & Bar 1308 Pearl St., on Pearl Street Mall, 303-442-0378. Features an authentic Italian menu created by Mario Zorzetto, voted 1999 Best Chef in Colorado and called "The Chef of the Italian Jet Set," and a Wine Spectator award-winning wine list with more than 300 Italian selections. Enjoy casual and intimate indoor seating with the ambiance of an old Roman piazza, or dine on the outdoor patio on Pearl Street Mall. Italian cultural events; call for information. Open daily for lunch and dinner. MC, VISA, AMEX, DISCOVER, DC. Local checks accepted. Italian Selections Enjoy panzanella, or pizza made fresh and cooked in a wood-burning oven. Authentic Italian entrees include choices such as saltimbocca alla Romana; bistecca al pepe verde, homemade lasagna, ravioli filled with lobster, ricotta and spinach or smoked salmon, and an assortment of seafood pasta dishes. Daily chef specials and delicious homemade pastas (named "Best of Boulder") such as rotolo di pasta. For dessert, try the delicate tiramisu–also voted "Best of Boulder"–or the panna cotta and crème caramel. Fine selection of grappas, ports, homemade limoncillo and spirits. Lunchtime Buffet Try the lunchtime buffet Mon-Fri 11:30am-3pm, featuring a choice of chicken, pork, three pastas, soup, salad and homemade bread for $8.50 per person. Tips for chunking text * Split your online document into multiple, hyperlinked pages of topics. * Break up your text into short, self-contained topics. * Label chunks to clearly identify their content. * Recognize that chunking requires compromise and judgment. For William Horton (1994), "Dividing a subject into discrete topics is as much art as science and requires compromise and judgment" (p. 109). * Use either a fixed or variable size strategy (Horton, 1994) * Fixed size With the fixed size strategy, all topics are the same length, usually the size of a paper page or a computer screen or window. * Variable size With the variable size strategy, the size of the topic varies to fit the content. (This paper uses the variable size strategy.)
	Keep Paragraphs Short Due to the difficulties of screen reading, online text should be especially concise and direct. Concise text reduces cognitive load by giving readers less information to digest. Reduced cognitive load means faster, more efficient processing of information. Short paragraphs encourage concise writing practices. They also provide white space, which helps readers scan online information more easily and more comfortably. To keep paragraphs short: * Limit yourself to one idea per paragraph. * Include three sentences or less in each paragraph, wherever possible. Ann Marie Smith and Caroline A. Drakeley (1998) recommend this guideline to provide readers with visual breaks. * Break up long paragraphs into short ones. Use bulleted lists, subheadings, or simpler paragraphs to organize information. #1 Before & After example: Breaking up long paragraphs Before: One long paragraph For more than 10 years, the Elements of Fiction series has helped writers improve–one element at a time. Featuring quality instruction from award-winning authors, each book focuses on a key facet of fiction writing, making it easy to find the specific guidance you're looking for. Now in paperback, learn more about Beginnings, Middles & Ends, Characters & Viewpoint, Scene & Structure and the other Elements of Fiction books. After: Broken up into two shorter paragraphs For more than 10 years, the Elements of Fiction series has helped writers improve–one element at a time. Featuring quality instruction from award-winning authors, each book focuses on a key facet of fiction writing, making it easy to find the specific guidance you're looking for. Now in paperback, learn more about Beginnings, Middles & Ends, Characters & Viewpoint, Scene & Structure and the other Elements of Fiction books. #2 Before & After example: Breaking up long paragraphs Before: One long paragraph Welcome to the Internet Cremation Society, the number one visited cremation site in the world. Our cremation portal will help you find just what you are looking for, whether it be a low-cost cremation provider, a specialty urn company, a unique scattering service, an on-line obituary site or just general information about cremation. We do not sell any of the products or services listed on the site. Rather, we provide you with carefully researched links to over five hundred companies offering cremation-related items. After: Restructured to use a bulleted list Welcome to the Internet Cremation Society, the number one visited cremation site in the world. Our cremation portal will help you find: * A low-cost cremation provider * A specialty urn company * A unique scattering service * An on-line obituary site * General information about cremation We do not sell any of the products or services listed on the site. Rather, we provide carefully researched links to over five hundred companies offering cremation-related items. * Eliminate unnecessary material. William Horton (1994) suggests: "Where possible, trim words or use tables, charts, and graphics to express concepts more compactly and with more interest" (p. 106). * Cross-reference rather than include. Provide links for subsidiary topics, definitions, and other supplementary material that need not be included in the primary text.
	Write Simply and Directly Due to screen reading problems, most readers scan online text instead of read word-by-word. Since they spend less time reading online, "It's critical that each screen of text contains just what a reader might be looking for, and that the information is easy to find" (Mitternight, 1998, p. 36). These requirements strongly suggest a simple, direct style for writing hypertext documents. To write simply and directly (Horton, 1994; Smith, 1998): * Choose mostly simple declarative and imperative sentences. Especially avoid embedded clauses, which risk falling between two "scrolling zones." Also, use an affirmative sentence structure. Specify what is true, not what is false. Before & After example: Using simple sentences Before: One long, complicated sentence Kodak today introduced two new digital cameras: the Kodak DC4800, which is due in August for $900 with a titanium-finish body, auto focus, 3.1 megapixel CCD, 3X optical and 2X digital zoom and a built-in strobe; and the Kodak DC5000, due later this month for $700, with a padded, weatherized body and oversized controls, 2-megapixel resolution, a 2X optical and a 3X digital zoom and an optional image-authentication module that meets legal requirements for digital images used as evidence. After: Short, simpler sentences (and restructured into a more readable bulleted list) Kodak today introduced two new digital cameras: * The Kodak DC4800, due in August for $900, features a titanium-finish body, auto focus, 3.1 megapixel CCD, 3X optical and 2X digital zoom and a built-in strobe. * The Kodak DC5000, due later this month for $700, features a padded, weatherized body and oversized controls, 2-megapixel resolution, a 2X optical and a 3X digital zoom. It also has an optional image-authentication module that meets legal requirements for digital images used as evidence. * Use active voice, when appropriate. Before & After example: Using active voice Before: Using passive voice How did Bungee Jumping start? Bungee Jumping was inspired by the vine jumpers of Pentecost Island in Vanuatu (formerly the New Hebrides) in the Pacific Ocean, where it is understood to be both a rite of passage into manhood, and a fertility rite performed to ensure a good yam harvest. Modern Bungee Jumping began with four simultaneous jumps off the Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol, England, on the 1st April 1979. After: Using active voice How did Bungee Jumping start? Bungee Jumping was inspired by the vine jumpers of Pentecost Island in Vanuatu (formerly the New Hebrides) in the Pacific Ocean. Vine jumping is both a rite of passage into manhood and a fertility rite performed to ensure a good yam harvest. Modern Bungee Jumping began with four simultaneous jumps off the Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol, England, on the 1st April 1979. Note: I retained passive voice in the first sentence because the sentence would be awkward if rewritten in active voice. * Choose strong verbs. Strong verbs make your writing more direct, concise, and interesting. #1 Before & After example: Choosing strong verbs Before: Using the noun "provision" when the verb form would work best Our Capacity Building program guides individuals and organizations through all the steps needed to develop multi-user information systems through the provision of advice, supporting materials for biodiversity management, and several training services. After: Using the verb "provides" (and breaking the long sentences into two shorter sentences) Our Capacity Building program guides individuals and organizations through all the steps needed to develop multi-user information systems. This program provides advice, supporting materials for biodiversity management, and several training services. #2 Before & After example: Choosing strong verbs Before: Using the noun "subscription" creates the weak verb "having" The main advantage of having your own personal subscription to the IAUCs and/or MPECs is obvious: you would no longer have to rely on second- or third-hand sources for information on new astronomical discoveries. After: Using the strong verb "subscribing" eliminates the weak verb "having" (and makes the text more concise) The main advantage of subscribing to the IAUCs and/or MPECs is obvious: you would no longer have to rely on second- or third-hand sources for information on new astronomical discoveries. * Be concise. Make every word count. Readers won't read a lot of text online. The shorter the text, the less likely readers will become fatigued from screen reading. Before & After example: Being concise Before: Wordy "legalese" in one long paragraph The information contained in this Web site is based on the observation of Colorado Department of Transportation employees and others and represents the general road and weather conditions at the time of the observation. Please note that some time may have passed since the observation was made and conditions may have changed. It is not intended that this information be used as the sole basis for travel decisions. During inclement weather, it is advisable that travel be delayed until CDOT has had an opportunity to perform any necessary maintenance activities. Always drive at speeds reasonable in relation to the condition of the highway. After: Concise text broken into shorter paragraphs The road conditions information is based on the observation of Colorado Department of Transportation employees and others. It represents the general road and weather conditions at the time of the observation. Please note that the road conditions might have changed since these observations were made. Do not use this information as the sole basis for travel decisions. During inclement weather, we advise that you delay travel until CDOT has completed any necessary maintenance. Always drive at speeds reasonable in relation to road conditions. * Use simple punctuation. Avoid using most contractions and semicolons. Due to low screen resolution, these punctuation marks are hard to read on screen. Before & After example: Using simple punctuation Before: Unnecessary colon Personal Organizer licenses are $50 each. Group Organizer licenses are $100 each; demos are also available. After: Colon replaced with a period Personal Organizer licenses are $50 each. Group Organizer licenses are $100 each. Demos are also available. * Express ideas precisely (such as stating quantities exactly). Readers tolerate less ambiguity online than in paper documents. * Use concrete, specific words and avoid abstract words. According to William Horton (1994), "Even complex concepts can be communicated in short, simple words already familiar to the reader" (p. 262). He recommends avoiding unnecessary jargon and using the reader's vocabulary whenever possible, which may include jargon. Horton (1994) states, "Jargon unites members of a specialized field and, used with those who understand it, adds precision and color. If you can speak the jargon like a native, go ahead and use it. If you can't, stick to standard English" (p. 262).
	Rethink Notions of Transitional, Linear Writing Hypertext requires a different approach to writing because of its emphasis on multiple paths through its structural design rather than the linear transmittal of information (Shirk, 1991, p. 194). Two opposing viewpoints suggest ways of rethinking the traditional notions of transitional, linear writing: * Abandon transitional words, phrases, and sentences. In print documents, transitional words, phrases, and sentences serve as the glue and provide paragraph flow. They are required for good writing. Henrietta N. Shirk (1991) argues that transitions in hypertext documents are unnecessary since the idea of "text as a singular flow" is abandoned (p. 194). They merely clutter your text and slow down the reader. In a sense, links serve the function of connecting information by enabling readers to create their own transitions (Shirk, 1991). * Provide more transitional devices to provide additional context. Transitional devices make the text flow better and be more easily understood by showing the relationship among ideas. Hypertext writing requires more of these devices to help readers remain sufficiently oriented. For instance, transitions can offer contextual cues to help readers understand where the information they just linked to belongs within the larger structure of the document. Especially if a sequential order is important, readers need a sense of what comes before and after a topic or chunk of information. Transitional phrases and sentences can provide this additional context. Tips to accommodate nonlinear writing Since writers cannot predict the order in which hypertext documents are read, their writing style "must accommodate jumpy searching as well as complete perusal" (Horton, 1994, p. 273). To accommodate these characteristics of hypertext: * Emphasize the new, the unexpected. Never bury important information in the middle of a paragraph. Highlight it or place it at beginning of a paragraph. Alternatively, make a separate paragraph that contains this information. * Avoid the "as-shown-above" problem. This problem concerns the tendency to write as if the reader were reading from beginning to end. Instead, use "next" or "previous" if the information is contained on the same page, name the item under discussion, or link to the information. * Reduce the use of pronouns such as "this" or "it." Make references explicit since the thing "this" or "it" refers to might have scrolled off the screen. Beware of forward references for the same reason (Horton, 1994). Before and After example: Making references explicit Before: Using "this" alone The festival’s retreat-like atmosphere provides an intellectually charged environment for filmmakers, artists, industry executives, journalists and film enthusiasts to network and share information and ideas. The exciting backdrop of Acapulco makes this a week you do not want to miss. So if you want to know what’s going on and coming up in Black cinema, register now! After: Making the reference explicit (and splitting into two paragraphs) The festival’s retreat-like atmosphere provides an intellectually charged environment for filmmakers, artists, industry executives, journalists and film enthusiasts to network and share information and ideas. The exciting backdrop of Acapulco makes this week a special one that you do not want to miss. So if you want to know what’s going on and coming up in Black cinema, register now!
	Apply a Consistent, Transparent Style A consistent, transparent style in hypertext helps the reader "quickly and painlessly" learn the conventions used throughout a document (Horton, 1994, p. 270). In hypertext, all differences of language need to be intentional and meaningful. William Horton (1994) contends that "variety for the sake of variety or artistic expression inevitably leads to confusion when applied to online documents" (p. 270). When writers phrase, format, and display information consistently, their documents become more concise, dependable, and reader-friendly. A consistent style means the consistent use of: * Words * Grammatical structures * Abbreviations * Spelling * Special conventions A transparent style does not draw attention to itself. Horton (1994) suggests striving "for a simple, professional, transparent style that keeps the user focused on the information you are presenting and not on how you are presenting it" (p. 106).
	Make the Text Scannable Due to the barriers caused by screen reading, readers generally prefer scanning online information rather than reading long blocks of text carefully or thoroughly. Writers can help readers by making their hypertext documents scannable. Scannable documents are easy to navigate and help readers find information with a minimum of time and effort. To make your hypertext document scannable: * Create links that aid scanning. Links stand out by virtue of being underlined and colored, so consider them highlighted words. Ideally, the links on your page should collectively offer context about what the page contains. By carefully choosing which words to link, you can create scannable link text that helps readers skim your content. Example: Creating scannable links In the topic "Web and print resources," I created links from the descriptive titles of each Web resource, not the URLs. The linked titles stand out from the rest of the text and collectively offer context about the resources listed on this page. The text of linked URLs would have been less meaningful to readers. Note: My preference is to leave out URLs in online documents (except for printer-friendly versions), but the reference list format for this publication requires them. * Write explanatory headings and page titles. Your headings and page titles should be short, precise abstracts of their associated topic. Otherwise, imprecise wording can thwart readers from finding the information they seek. To make your headings and page titles scannable: * Explain the topic from your readers' perspective, not your own. * Avoid cute, clever, or cryptic headings and page titles. * Lengthen generic headings and page titles to provide more context. Since readers can access your topic from different entry points, it is important that headings and page titles be able to stand alone. Remember that headings and page titles are often displayed out of context in search engine results lists or a browser's bookmark menu. Even when context is supplied by surrounding text or graphics, the limitations of screen reading make that context less effective in giving readers cues about meaning. * Put the most important words first. * Remove unnecessary words and phrases. Articles such as "the" and "an" are often unnecessary and merely clutter your headings and page titles. Good examples: Effective headings and page titles Overview of Main Street Bank's Financial Services FAQ about Online Auctions Australia Travel Guide Bad examples: Less effective headings and page titles Overview FAQ The Travel Guide for Visiting Australia * Highlight key words and phrases. Emphasize important points by highlighting them. Bold or colored text usually works better than ALL CAPS. In many instances, key words and phrases are turned into links that lead to additional information. Additional emphasis is unnecessary here. Example: Highlighting key words and phrases In this paper, I highlight key words and phrases by coloring the text red. I use this technique for the key words or phrases that do not stand out by other means. The color red works well with the overall color scheme of my pages. For instance, in the topic "Why create links?" I highlight the phrases "two types of links" and "Use associative links to:". I also use the color red to highlight titles for my examples. Note: Throughout this paper, I highlight most of my important points by making them separate items in bulleted lists. It is unnecessary to add more emphasis in these instances. * Restructure narrative text into bulleted lists, whenever possible. Bulleted lists are ideal for hypertext documents because they highlight important information in a concise format that encourages scanning. Restructuring narrative text into bulleted lists does require careful thought and sometimes, additional details. To create bulleted lists that facilitate scanning: * Use lists more frequently online than you would in print. * Include no more than seven items in a list, when possible. * For each bulleted item, summarize your main point in a phrase or sentence. Include further explanation or supplementary details in a comment section under the bulleted item, as I do here. * Use concise phrases for bulleted items, when appropriate. Phrases are more scannable than complete sentences. * Limit list items to one line, whenever possible. Before & After example: Breaking up narrative text into a bulleted list Before: Narrative text with important information buried in paragraphs The original version of this paper contained mostly narrative text that was chunked into short, self-contained topics. To make my text more scannable and reader-friendly, I broke it up into bulleted lists. Here's how the topic "Screen Reading Problems" used to read: Nielsen states that Web users do not read long blocks of text carefully or thoroughly (Allstetter, 1998). "Screen resolution is too low, too coarse, so the letters don't feel smooth to the eye," he says. "That slows down the eye when it tries to read the text." In fact, studies show that reading from a screen is about 30% slower than reading from paper (Nielsen, 1995, p. 154). Since screens are smaller, granier, less portable, and more glaring than hardcopy, reading online also can be less convenient and cause eyestrain (Horton, 1994, p. 11). Moreover, processing text online requires spatial and relational processing abilities (Wenger & Payne, 1996). Thus, designers need to consider rhetorical issues differently than they would for conventional texts. In too many cases, documents were never designed for the screen and simply dumped online (Schriver, 1997). Such documents can become unreadable and therefore inaccessible for readers. After: Bulleted list that highlights important points and makes the text more scannable For the present version of the topic "Screen Reading Problems," I restructured the narrative text into eight bulleted items and placed details under some items when I had more to say about them. The present version does include a few additional points, but the two texts contain essentially the same information. Note: Whenever possible, include no more than seven items in a bulleted list. As I found, exceptions to this guideline are sometimes unavoidable. * Use a site map or online index. A site map or online index can help readers quickly find what they need. Kevin Broccoli’s (1998) Contentious article “Indexes: An old tool for a new medium” offers helpful advice on online indexing.
	Ensure Accurate Reading Since text is less legible on screen, hypertext writers need to take precautions to ensure that the reader does not misread words and phrases. William Horton (1994) offers the following suggestions to ensure accurate reading: * For small words that can change the meaning of a sentence, ensure that they are not misread. Consider underlining small words (such as all, if, or, any) or displaying them in ALL CAPS. Emphasize key words only, not entire phrases or sentences. OR rewrite such sentences. * Avoid overabbreviation. Abbreviations are easily misread and can confuse the reader. If you use them, apply only common ones and use them consistently. * Avoid contractions. The apostrophe presents a problem on low-resolution screens. * Use only standard, easily read symbols. These symbols include letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and standard symbols ($, *, @, %, &). * Avoid special characters that not everyone can display. Use standard font sets that are likely to be installed on all computers. * Do not rely on punctuation marks. Punctuation marks are the most easily misread symbols. For instance, there is usually only a pixel or two of difference between a period and a comma. In particular, avoid colons and semicolons. * To test the vulnerability of the text, remove all punctuation and see whether readers can still decipher its meaning. If readers cannot decipher the meaning, rewrite the text so the meaning does not depend on a single punctuation mark.
	Quick Online Writing Tips Online writing needs to concise and to the point. The following tips can help you write concise online text: * Keep topics, paragraphs, sentences, and words as short as possible. For instance, two short paragraphs are preferable to one long paragraph. Two short sentences are preferable to one long sentence. Also, why use two words when one will do? * Write self-contained topics that fully answer one question. * Eliminate unnecessary material. * Cross-reference rather than include supplementary information. * Whenever possible, use graphics instead of text. However, make sure the graphics convey the same information as the text would have.   The following tips can also improve your hypertext writing: * Do not bury information. Put all critical information near or at the top of the screen * Vigorously apply the principles of clear writing. * Use a transparent writing style that does not draw attention to itself. * Make headings and subheadings of topics as specific and obvious as possible. * Provide a brief introduction, especially if the topic is longer than one screen. * For each topic, begin with a generic transition. The generic transition relates the title of the topic to the content.
	Common Pitfalls Try to avoid the following pitfalls commonly found in hypertext writing: * "Dumping" print documents online Due to the difficulties associated with reading screen displays, long passages of text that require a careful reading gain little value from going online (Horton, 1994). In these instances, it might make sense to leave the document in its printed format but merely allow readers to access it online and print it for off-line reading. Evidence of print documents "dumped" online include: * Long passages of unbroken text * Insufficient white space * Page turning "Page turning" occurs when a writer breaks up an article into sequential chunks and includes at the bottom of each page: "Click here for next page." According to Jakob Nielsen, this presents "a truly bad solution to the problem of scrolling. It completely ignores what makes hypertext so powerful" (Allstetter, 1998). * Few meaningful links * Not s